Wildfires are an annual occurrence along the West Coast, igniting anywhere from Alaska down to southern California. But both the intensity and length of fire season have grown in recent years, driven in part by the drought conditions and high temperatures of an ever-warming planet.

And even if you live nowhere near the Pacific, or anywhere else that’s burning, you can still feel the effects of wildfires hundreds of miles away: hazy conditions and air quality alerts have descended on the Midwest and reached as far as the East Coast. It may be the first time your local weather has suffered as a result of fires happening somewhere else—but it won’t be the last. That’s why it’s crucial that you understand when to worry about wildfire haze, and what you can do to protect yourself and your loved ones.

“Small particles in the air can travel hundreds of miles,” says Zab Mosenifar, medical director for the Women’s Guild Lung Institute at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. “While the immediate danger is within a 25-mile radius of a fire—depending on the winds—particles travel and float in the air for up to two weeks after the fire is out.”

These ultrafine particles of burnt organic matter are too small to see with the naked eye, but can still cause hazy conditions and lower the air quality far from the fire itself. To check the air quality in your area, enter your zip code, city, or state into the search bar on the front page of AirNow. This data-focused site is a partnership involving numerous federal, tribal, state, and local government agencies, and uses sensors around the country to provide accurate and up-to-date information about the cleanliness of your local air. The site also offers general recommendations for what to do if the air quality index (AQI) at your location is dangerously high, so make sure to follow them, as well as any other instructions from local authorities. 

“For the vast majority of people… it’s more annoying than life-threatening,” says Clayton Cowl, a pulmonologist and preventive medicine specialist at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota. “Simply walking outside and doing what we normally do, for the average person probably isn’t going to be a big deal.”

[Related: Living in the same city doesn’t mean breathing the same air]

This means that if you aren’t a member of a high-risk group, you don’t need to postpone going to the grocery store, walking your dog, and other day-to-day activities at the slightest sign of smog. The human body has a natural filtration system that protects our lungs from dust and debris every day. 

“We all have a little bit of nose hair, and there’s mucus in the upper airway that dust sticks to like a fly would to flypaper,” says Cowl. “The problem with the very small particles is that they can bypass those normal mechanisms and you tend to inhale those particular particles deeper into the lungs.”

The key, therefore, is avoiding strenuous outdoor activities and using a few common-sense tips to keep your exposure to particles low. This is especially important for members of vulnerable groups.

As the AirNow dial points farther to the right, into the red, purple, and maroon levels, even people who have a low risk of being affected might want to stay indoors. If the world looks hazy through your window, make sure you check AQI levels and stay up to date with the information and recommendations from local authorities before stepping outside.

The post What to do when wildfire smoke fills the air appeared first on Popular Science.

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But if you’re an animal lover determined to feed your local park’s residents, there are several healthy alternatives. Before you go stock up on snacks, though, always make sure you’re allowed to feed the critters in question—some areas’ rules are more lenient than others.

What to feed ducks (and other waterfowl)

The best advice we can give about feeding ducks (or other types of park fowl like swans and geese) is to imitate the types of food they naturally eat in the ponds and fields they call home. This means vegetables and nutritious grains work well, while processed “human” foods do not. Even though bread is typically made from grains, the breadmaking process renders it very filling with a relatively low amount of nutrients, two factors that can lead to malnourished ducks. Instead, try to stick with snacks that haven’t been highly processed.

For vegetables, the most important consideration is making sure that the bits and pieces you offer are small enough for waterfowl to handle. Ducks and their relatives aren’t great at chewing—while their bills help break down food, they don’t have teeth, at least in the traditional sense. Cut salad greens, vegetable peels, nuts, grapes, and other produce into small pieces before you toss them to these birds.

[Related: Why do ducks have orange feet?]

A bag of frozen mixed peas, corn niblets, and carrot pieces is one of the best options for waterfowl: these veggies are nutritious, affordable, and small enough for ducks to eat whole. Grains like oats, rice, and seeds make good waterfowl chow for the same reason. Even better, many of these little morsels will float on your local pond, keeping them easily accessible to ducks. Big chunks of food that sink to the bottom aren’t as useful.

If you’re looking to get fancy, you can also drop a couple more dollars on a bag of specially formulated waterfowl food. These pellets, available online or at your local pet store, are typically fed to pet birds and farm animals. These bite-size bits may not float on water, though, so test a few handfuls near the water’s edge before you start a feeding frenzy. This designer food may be best served up on the banks.

Other tips for feeding ducks

No matter how eager they are for a human-provided snack, your local park’s resident fowl are almost certainly not going to go hungry without you. Most ducks are perfectly capable of foraging for insects, plant life, and other nutrition sources on their own. That means you don’t need to feel bad if some of them miss out on the feast. In fact, overfeeding waterfowl can cause a host of problems, from teaching them to rely on human handouts to throwing off their natural nutritional balance. When in doubt, it’s better to stop feeding the birds sooner than you’d like than it is to feed them too much.

If you suspect a particular duck, goose, or swan may be unable to feed itself after you leave, it’s time to call in professional help. Waterfowl that live in parks are susceptible to a host of dangers from the human world, ranging from vehicle strikes to lead poisoning. Feeding them may be a temporary kindness, but it’s not a sustainable solution. If you see a bird having difficulty moving around or visibly in distress, contact your local wildlife specialists right away.

The post Don’t feed ducks bread. Here’s what to give them instead. appeared first on Popular Science.

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Greetings, panicking homeowner! If you’ve found this article through a frantic web search, there may be a fuzzy visitor flying around your head right now. Fear not: bats get a bad rap, but they’re nothing to freak out about. Most are totally harmless, and we guarantee they’re no more pleased with this situation than you are. It’s time to escort your spooky houseguest back outside where it belongs.

1. Don’t panic

When an unexpected creature is flying around your living space, you might be tempted to grab a rolled-up newspaper and start swatting. Resist that urge. While a flying bat may call to mind a giant insect or a furious bird, this nocturnal mammal isn’t out to hurt you. Bats won’t attack you unless provoked, they won’t fly toward you and get caught in your hair, and, no, they are not out to drink your blood. If it helps, think of your visitor as a hamster with wings: cute, furry, and ultimately powerless against a big, strong human. A bat is way more afraid of you than you are of it, so keep calm and get to work helping it find its way back outside.

[Related: Bats’ echolocation has one major blind spot]

After donning your bat-catchin’ suit, wait for your bat to land somewhere. It will likely hang high on your curtains or in another secluded location off the ground. Always wait until a bat is stationary before trying to catch it: grabbing one mid-flight is likely to injure it, and may lead to a retaliatory bite. First, try offering it a perch to hang from by resting the handle of a broom against wherever it’s hanging. The bat may climb aboard and be ready for a ride outdoors. In this case, slowly carry the broom outside or simply stick the bat-laden handle out an open window.

If this trick doesn’t work, you’ll have to consider trapping the bat in a more hands-on fashion. Move closer and quickly—but gently—put your plastic container over the animal. Carefully slide the piece of cardboard over the container’s opening to trap the bat inside, then bring it outdoors. If you don’t have a plastic container, a cloth can also work: grab a bedsheet or a large scarf and cover the sedentary bat with it, then gently bundle it up and transport it outside. Try not to use a towel for this, as bats’ tiny claws can get caught in the fabric’s loops. 

Once outdoors, release the bat onto a tree or another vertical surface where it can hang out upside down until it decides to fly away. Unlike birds, bats cannot take flight from a standing position on the ground. Offer them a high perch instead and watch until they fly away into the night.

5. Call in the experts as a last resort

If your flying guest appears injured or can’t otherwise be captured safely, the time for DIY is over and it’s time to call in the experts. Your local animal control department and wildlife rehabilitators are good places to start, but depending on the time and your location, they may not be able to arrive quickly and assist you. For rapid response, a 24-hour pest control service may be your best bet—but do a little research first to make sure they’re qualified to handle bats. 

If you or anyone else in your home has suffered a bat bite during the rescue operation, it’s a good idea to secure the bat and have it tested for rabies before releasing it back into the wild. You can do this by contacting your local health department or a veterinarian in your area. While you wait, keep the bat inside a large container. But don’t panic—fewer than 1 percent of bats actually carry rabies.

The post How to get a bat out of your house appeared first on Popular Science.

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Instead, reading more concrete examples attesting to the safety of air travel may be more helpful for those suffering from airplane anxiety. 

“Our determination of what feels safe or not has nothing to do with our reasoning qualities,” says Martin Seif, a clinical psychologist who specializes in treating anxiety disorders. “Our anxieties are triggered from a part of our brain that’s not rational.” 

Sief argues that  “fear of flying” is a blanket term that encompasses a whole constellation of more specific fears, including that of heights, crashes, terrorism, enclosed spaces, germs, and many more. Thinking about which particular fears apply to you can help you keep your anxiety in check.

Therefore, it can be helpful to remind yourself that you cannot trust your anxious brain when it comes to flying-related thoughts. Make the effort to remain grounded with simple observations to disarm the panic responses your brain tries to force upon you.

First, think about the people you know: your friends, family, coworkers, and acquaintances. Have any of them ever been killed in a plane crash? Have any of them experienced even a non-fatal aviation accident? The answer is probably no. Remind yourself that this is because airplane mishaps are so vanishingly rare, most people don’t know a single person who has faced one.

Then, when you’re on the plane, look around at your fellow passengers and you’ll likely be able to see at least one baby or small child with their parents. If flying was truly as dangerous as your anxiety wants you to believe, no parent would ever bring their child on board. Therefore, flying must be safer than you currently realize.

Next time you’re in the car, bring along a partially-filled water bottle and notice how the ordinary bumps and potholes on the road cause the water to jostle around violently. Keep that movement in mind when you’re on a turbulent flight. Notice that although the bumps may feel significant, the drinks in cups or bottles around you will only move very slightly. 

Finally, flight attendants take to the skies for a living, so they know exactly what parts of a flight are expected or unexpected. Next time you get nervous, take your emotional cues from them—it’s likely that mechanical sounds, changes of altitude, alert lights in the cabin, and other signals are no cause for alarm. If they seem calm and relaxed, you can give yourself permission to relax as well.

“The best way to handle anxiety is to try to figure out ways of leaving it alone,” says Seif. “Anxiety lives in the future, and the closer you stay to the present, the more manageable your anxiety becomes.” 

Before your flight, try not to dwell on your anxiety at all. Dreading a flight is often the biggest source of stress for nervous fliers, but we can only control how we feel and what we do in the present. Reconnect yourself to the current moment using your five senses, and acknowledge that anxiety will arrive when the flight actually happens.

When you’re at the airport, avoid using mind-altering substances like alcohol to self-medicate your anxiety—they can help dull your senses, but don’t address the underlying problem. Instead, accept your anxious feelings and avoid engaging with them. You can also use some of the facts mentioned above to remind yourself that you are safe.

[Related: Choose the best seat on any airplane]

Once you’re on the plane, you will probably start feeling the physical effects of heightened anxiety: sweaty palms, tense shoulders, or a racing heartbeat. Your body is responding to a false alarm telling it that danger is near—but it really isn’t. Do your best to make your body as comfortable as possible, eat and drink water as you normally would, and distract your brain from intrusive thoughts using any in-flight entertainment available.

As soon as you land, note how comfortable and easy your flight was compared to what you initially feared. This is also a good time to reflect on the mental process you went through: you expected to feel anxious, you felt anxious, and then you were released from that anxiety by arriving safely at your destination. 

Many therapists are trained to diagnose and treat anxiety disorders with a combination of talk therapy, medication, and practical exercises. If you find yourself dreading vacations or even canceling trips due to your fear of flying, it’s probably time to enlist an expert. There’s no magical cure that can eliminate anxiety right away, but putting in the work with professional guidance can turn flying from a dreaded chore back into an exciting adventure.

The post 5 tips to soothe your fear of flying appeared first on Popular Science.

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North America is home to dozens of turtle species, from the soda can-sized bog turtle to the devastatingly handsome alligator snapping turtle. Each spring, countless turtles emerge from the sleepy winter months ready to nest, find food, and resume their more active warm-weather lifestyles. Unfortunately, these journeys toward favored habitats and ideal nesting spots often involve treacherous trips across roads. 

You’re no use to a wandering turtle if you get hit by a car or cause a crash while trying to lend a helping hand. If you see a turtle on the pavement or by the side of a road facing toward traffic, carefully stop your vehicle and turn on its hazard lights. This will help alert other drivers to the situation. If possible, pull over to the side of the road and exit your vehicle only when it’s safe to do so.

Lend a helping hand, but only when necessary

While most turtles have an idea of where they want to go, some might need a little assistance getting there safely. If the turtle in question is stuck on its back, moving extremely slowly, not moving at all, or has retracted its head and limbs into its shell, you may need to intervene to get it out of harm’s way. These tips are intended for a shy or stubborn but otherwise healthy turtle—we’ll get to injured turtles in a moment.

[Related: A rare two-headed turtle is alive and thriving, surprising scientists]

We’ll also note that you should take special care if you encounter a snapping turtle. While adults will likely be too large to pick up, even small ones will defend themselves if they feel threatened. The Toronto Zoo has an informative video tutorial for handling this specific species of turtle.

How to pick up small turtles

If you’ve encountered a turtle you can easily pick up and feel comfortable doing so, gently and firmly grasp the turtle’s sides with both hands, MATTS says. Hold it like you would a large sandwich: support the underside with your fingers while placing your thumbs on the top of the shell. Your hands should be between the turtle’s front and back legs on each side. Lift the turtle only as high as you need to in order to walk it to safety. If possible, have someone else direct traffic while you do this.

It’s very important not to lift the turtle by only its top shell, grab or pull a turtle’s tail, or drop it. We repeat: do not let go under any circumstances: an impact onto pavement can be fatal. Be prepared for the turtle to urinate or try to bite or scratch you when you lift it up. These aren’t signs of aggression: they’re merely defense mechanisms the turtle is employing in a stressful situation. If needed, gently set the turtle back down to adjust your grip before lifting it up again. Never hold a turtle with only one hand, as its weight and smooth shell could cause you to drop it.

What to do if you encounter a large turtle

If you come across a turtle that looks too large to comfortably lift, don’t test your strength by trying to pick it up anyway. Softshell turtles, snapping turtles, and other large species are usually fragile and unwieldy. While they aren’t likely to actually bite or injure you, it’s best to approach these gentle giants from behind. Help them along with a soft push to the back of the shell using a sturdy stick or another long object that lets you keep your distance.

If this doesn’t help speed up the turtle’s trip across the road, place a car mat in front of it and encourage it to climb aboard with a few gentle nudges. Once the turtle has all four feet on the mat, drag it the rest of the way across the road and let the turtle walk off. A large piece of cardboard can also work if you don’t have a mat available.

Respect turtles’ plans

Turtles generally have a good sense of where they are and where they’re going. If you encounter a turtle moving or facing in a particular direction, help it continue to move in that direction. Returning a turtle to the side of the road it came from won’t do any good: it will just try to cross the road again when you leave.

If you’ve encountered a turtle belly-up, lift it gently and place it on its feet. It may cross the road independently or walk away of its own accord. If it doesn’t move, carry it to the side of the road and monitor it for a few minutes to see which direction it goes. It likely has a destination in mind, and the best thing to do is help it get there safely. 

It’s also important not to remove the turtle from its immediate territory by driving it to a local park or nature preserve, MATTS says. This unexpected change of scenery could leave the turtle vulnerable to disease and environmental stress. Even if you think you know a great, safe place for the turtle to go, it’s best to leave it to its own devices once you’ve removed it from harm’s way.

What to do with an injured turtle

If a turtle appears injured or unable to move, gently remove it from the road using the techniques above and contact your local fish and wildlife department for advice on what to do next. Your local experts may talk you through the best course of action over the phone, or they may send staff who are trained and equipped to handle the injured turtle. While you wait, place the turtle in a clean, dry container in a warm, shaded area away from predators, according to the Central Mississippi Turtle Rescue. Don’t drive it anywhere new unless instructed to do so by animal specialists, and record the location where you found it. This will help rehabilitators release it back into familiar habitat once it is well enough to return to the wild. You can also report the species and location of your sighting to citizen science initiatives like HerpMapper to help researchers study turtle populations.

The post What to do if you find a turtle in the road appeared first on Popular Science.

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Working from your living room couch may be more enjoyable than a stuffy cubicle, but both setups can keep you feeling tethered to a power outlet. Luckily, there’s an easy way to cut that cord and move your workspace outdoors—without worrying about charging battery packs ahead of time. 

Portable solar panels are gaining popularity as folks look for a simple, sustainable way to juice up their devices while off the grid. Whether you’re a hardcore backpacker heading deep into the wilderness or a sunbather hoping to get some work done in your local park, there’s a personal solar panel out there suited to your needs.

Portable solar panels are also a great way to familiarize yourself with renewable energy. While you may not be ready to install a solar roof on your house, charging a phone or laptop with a small panel can help you gauge the light levels in your area and see how well solar power may be able to meet your needs.

Factors to keep in mind

Even though most portable solar panels are easy to set up and simple to use, there’s always a lot to consider when investing in a new piece of technology. We’ve gathered what we think are the most important factors to think about before you start powering up in the great outdoors.

Wattage

Start by figuring out how much electricity you need. Some personal panels are available in a number of different wattages—a measure of pure electrical power. For example, the Goal Zero Boulder Briefcase, a panel that folds into a compact rectangle with handles for easy portability, is available in 50-watt, 100-watt, and 200-watt varieties. The designs with higher wattages are larger and more expensive, so the best panel for you will depend on what electronics you’re hoping to power. Make sure you read our guide on how to properly charge devices when you’re done here.

Lower-wattage panels won’t prove useless in your mission to stray away from traditional energy sources, but they may charge your devices more slowly than you’re used to. For best results, take a look at your device’s specifications and figure how much power their charging cables allow in. This can help prevent you from buying a panel with a wattage that exceeds your devices’ limits.

Power storage options

Many portable panels come with the necessary cables and batteries you’ll need to store electricity for later. A power bank is especially helpful if you hope to use solar energy when there’s no sun: illuminating a campsite at nighttime, charging your phone during a thunderstorm, or keeping your laptop running on a cloudy afternoon are all good examples. If you want to stock up on solar power, consider purchasing a kit that includes the necessary batteries, converters, and cables. 

[Related: Camping gear that could really help in a power outage]

It’s also possible to skip the accessories and use your solar power instantly. Many portable panels have USB ports that allow you to charge your electronics directly. A small, lightweight option may be all you need to keep your phone or laptop running on a sunny day. Foregoing batteries and cables can also help keep the cost of your solar setup low.

Portability

The size, weight, and design of your personal solar panel will all determine its portability. If you’re planning to drive to a sunny field to get some work done, a heavier and more bulky panel might be fine: you can keep it in your car until you reach your destination, so its size and weight won’t be an issue. On the other hand, backpackers and hikers should choose small, lightweight panels that won’t become a burden on long outdoor treks. Before you buy, make sure you check a panel’s weight and dimensions, as well as those of all its accessories.

Weather resistance

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Although renewable energy is making significant advancements, many of us still rely on gasoline to fuel our cars and other machinery. In times of crisis, this need is even more pronounced: the backup generators that power our homes during storms and blackouts frequently run on gas. 

When you’re under stress, or even facing a potential survival situation, the urge to stockpile gasoline can be tempting. But doing so can quickly become dangerous. In fact, our friends over at The Drive argue that it’s never a good idea to buy way more gas than you need. Still, there are ways to store gasoline safely and sensibly—it’s all about moderation and proper conditions.

• Red: Regular gasoline. This color is the most common and should hold only pure gasoline that hasn’t been mixed with any other substances.
• Yellow: Diesel gasoline. This fuel is often used for trucks and other large machinery.
• Blue: Kerosene. This flammable fuel can be used for cooking stoves and small lamps. It also powers many aircraft.
• Green: Flammable mixed fuels. If you have lawn equipment that runs on a mixture of gasoline and oil, for example, that mixture should be stored in a green container.

As tempting as it might be in a time of crisis, do NOT store gasoline or other combustible substances in unorthodox containers. Milk jugs, canteens, and other everyday vessels are not built to handle gasoline and could easily spill or leak dangerous fumes. Gasoline also expands when it warms up, meaning you should always heed the maximum fill line on DOT-approved canisters to avoid an overflow.

Store the gasoline in a safe space

Proper containers are only a part of the puzzle: it’s also important to store gasoline and other combustible liquids in secure, well-ventilated areas away from any source of heat or electricity. A cool, dry corner of a locked building away from people is a great spot.

If your garage is attached to your house, Bennett adds, that can be an acceptable place to store gasoline—as long as you keep it away from any source of electricity and out of the reach of children and pets. You can also store gasoline outdoors, but it’s best to keep it sheltered from the elements. Any small cracks or leaks in a gas canister can let water seep in, ruining the fuel inside. The gasoline can also leak out and damage the surrounding environment.

Unlike the food in your pantry, there’s no standard guide to gasoline’s shelf life. One warning sign is smell: expired gasoline lets off a strong, pungent odor that Bennett says is different from the scent that wafts into your nostrils at the gas station. But for those who don’t want to rely on their nose alone, Bennett recommends using a conservative estimate of 30 days to gauge its expiration date.  

Keep only what you need

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In our increasingly chaotic digital age, disinformation disguised as science is rampant. It’s also getting harder to detect, thanks to new technologies and politically motivated campaigns against commonly acknowledged scientific truths like vaccine effectiveness, the realities of the climate crisis, and more. Navigating the turbulent sea of online scientific and pseudoscientific information requires a sharp eye, a skeptical brain, and an openness to new ideas about the world around us.

Click the link

Your first exposure to any pseudoscientific claim will almost certainly come in the form of a catchy headline—perhaps a little too catchy. John Gregory, a researcher for the online fact-checking service NewsGuard, warns that fully capitalized words, exclamation points, or strong opinions in the headline of an article are some of the first signs that its contents may be misleading.

“One of the dead giveaways is the use of really emotional language,” he says, adding that the key difference between a factual and misleading story is what evidence its authors use to back up the headline’s claim. This means that your best defense against being duped is to click the link and actually read the article, rather than taking the headline at face value. It’s often difficult for journalists to convey nuance and uncertainty in headlines that are meant to be catchy and brief. The best way to tell whether a headline is accurate, misleading, or downright false is to see for yourself what the article has to say.

Scrutinize the study

Science news is usually based on a specific, detailed study—a feature that sets it apart from other types of news. Ironically, this makes it both easier to verify and easier to fake. On one hand, a primary source like a recently published paper can quickly back up an article’s claims. On the other, many developments in science and medicine are fairly complex, making primary sources difficult for many readers to understand.

Given that risk, it’s worthwhile to do a little extra digging into the studies behind science news stories. Keep an eye out for a few simple metrics: a large sample size, the presence of control groups, and appropriate caveats in the researchers’ conclusions. All of these items should be included in the paper’s abstract—the paragraph at the beginning that summarizes the study’s methods and findings. News articles about the study should also mention these details.

“Most scientists are very cautious, always leaving open that opportunity for new data,” says Jessica McDonald, the science editor at FactCheck.org. “In fact, if a scientist is 100 percent certain of something, that’s probably a sign that they may not be giving you accurate information.”

This applies both to quoted experts and primary sources themselves. A reliable scientific study will be forthcoming about its own limitations, the scope of its results, and the need for further investigation. Likewise, a trustworthy scientist usually won’t make sweeping claims about a study’s findings, instead explaining the nuances of new discoveries.

Consider the context

Developments in the field of medicine are frequently falsified or misrepresented. This means you’ll need an extra level of scrutiny to separate fact from fiction. Often, peddlers of false info rely on a small nugget of truth to help support their claims. 

“What they usually rely on is misrepresenting smaller lab studies, maybe an animal model study, but no human trial,” Gregory says of articles that purport to reveal miraculous cures to diseases like cancer. “Then, they exaggerate that to say that because [an experimental treatment] killed cancer cells in a lab in a petri dish, it’ll do the same in the human body—and that’s just not true.”

McDonald adds that medical scientific papers are not necessarily accurate just because they are listed on popular preprint servers. Actual publication in a peer-reviewed journal is a promising sign of legitimacy; simple appearance online is not.

“Just because a paper is indexed on PubMed does not mean that it’s been vetted,” she says. “[Databases like PubMed] can be full of a lot of good information, and also some very dubious scientific papers. They’re not necessarily legitimate.”

“One of the biggest things we depend on [at NewsGuard] is: ‘What is the history of this site and the claims they’ve shared in the past?’” says Gregory. If a website consistently posted anti-vaccine disinformation before the pandemic, for example, it’s not going to be a reliable source of info about the COVID-19 vaccines now. 

[Related: Major news outlets are handing the mic to big business on climate issues]

Gregory recommends checking suspicious outlets for information about who writes their articles, who runs the publication, and what organizations they’re associated with. If this information is difficult to find or missing altogether, the source may not be reliable. It’s also important to look beyond a publication’s name to judge its character, says Gregory. Some sites, like the Denver Guardian or the National Vaccine Information Center, rely on legitimate-sounding names to convey authority despite being known peddlers of disinformation and false news, he explained.

“When it comes to health misinformation sites, and pseudoscience in general, there’s often this ‘They don’t want you to know this’ mentality,” says Gregory. “The sources using those tactics are often trying to sell you something themselves, whether it be a supplement, a medical treatment, consultations, or sometimes the content itself.”

This is another reason why it’s so important to figure out who exactly owns or controls a publication: they may have a financial motivation that inherently destroys the impartiality that responsible journalists are supposed to practice. Giving an overview of various sore throat remedies isn’t necessarily pseudoscience—but promising that One Miracle Tea will instantly cure sore throats probably is. If an article seems to be steering you toward one solution or treatment without giving an honest look at its pros and cons, its authors might be after your money.

Even if an article isn’t trying to sell you a particular product, following the money can also reveal the motivations behind dubious claims. If possible, do a little research on the outlet itself to learn more about its leadership and funding sources. A lobbying group, a private medical practice, a professional business association, or even an individual person with a strong agenda may be lurking behind the curtain.

Professional fact-checkers and science journalists are trained to ferret out misleading information and expose it for the pseudoscience it is. In addition to presenting carefully-compiled research in a clear, factual way, they can also help shine light on complex topics by directly consulting subject matter experts.

[Related: How to fact-check suspicious science stories for yourself]

“Part of what journalists are doing is reaching out to sources we trust and asking them what they think. People should take that seriously,” says McDonald. “I would [also] challenge people to find news organizations that aren’t necessarily in line with their views, and that are known for being middle-of-the-road.”

Consulting a wide variety of non-partisan sources to get an idea of the scientific consensus is a great way to rely on outside expertise without placing all your faith in one outlet. Maybe one newspaper or website is leading you astray—but it’s unlikely that five, 10, or 15 are all at once. 

Trust the court of public opinion

If you’re the type of person who takes everything with a grain of salt, it may be difficult to figure out who to trust on scientific issues. There is no perfect answer: certain individual scientists may be corrupt or misinformed, some government officials may have political agendas, and even trustworthy news outlets occasionally make mistakes. That’s why in addition to trusting the experts on science, you may also find it useful to trust the systems in our society that you recognize to be reliable, like the importance of public reputation and even human nature itself.

“Governments like to look good,” says McDonald. “They don’t want to have their citizens dying.” You may not trust the government in every aspect of your life, but your tax dollars are funding a lot of scientific and medical research conducted by people hoping to improve our lives and protect us from diseases, she explains.

If renowned universities and hospitals were actively spreading misinformation, they would risk ruining their prestigious reputations. The same goes for well-regarded news outlets and the journalists who work for them. The public’s trust is hard to win, and most institutions wouldn’t risk losing it for the sake of one misleading claim. But even if you will never trust large organizations, you can still have faith in individual people.

“Scientists are people too,” McDonald says. “A lot of this ‘evil scientist’ stuff doesn’t make sense if you’ve actually met a scientist. Scientists are just regular people, and they get into this field because… [they] want to help their fellow man.”

The post How to tell science from pseudoscience appeared first on Popular Science.

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Walking directly into a plate glass door is a classic slapstick trope—and as long as no one gets hurt, it is pretty funny. But humans are usually large enough to avoid serious injury, and have the perception skills to generally avoid even the most spotless glass doors and windows. The same can’t be said of our nation’s relatively fragile wild birds, whose poor eyesight often renders them incapable of distinguishing clear glass from open air. 

Researchers estimate that in the US alone, more than 1 million wild birds die every day from collisions with glass windows, doors, and buildings. The real number may be as much as three times larger. This human-borne problem requires humans to solve it, and there’s no better time than migration season to make the buildings you occupy less hazardous to birds.

[Related: The world needs dark skies more than ever. Here’s why]

The best way to keep birds away from clear glass windows is to turn off all interior lights at night. Migrating birds navigate by the natural light of the moon and stars after dark, often using them to determine which direction to fly. Brightly lit buildings can disorient and exhaust them, making it more likely they’ll fly into a window or wall. Switching off all your exterior and interior lights when you aren’t using them after sundown will help migrating birds avoid deadly window collisions. 

Install shades and screens

Keeping birds from colliding with glass is basically an exercise in dressing up your glass to look like the solid barrier it is rather than the open space birds perceive it to be. The easiest way to do this is by using the features already on or near your windows: curtains, shutters, insect screens, and shades. Covering your windows with these amenities is a foolproof way to show birds that there’s something solid in their way. Use these coverings during peak migration times in the fall and spring, especially when you have indoor lights on after sunset.

You may have seen large glass windows with stickers shaped like hawks and other raptors, but these decals aren’t super effective at scaring birds away. A better option is a simple grid of dots, spaced no more than 2 inches vertically and 4 inches horizontally. Small, evenly spaced stickers are more effective than a few large stickers because they allow birds to see that the entire surface of a glass window is impenetrable. Some companies even sell special dot tape for this purpose. A privacy film with a regularly-spaced opaque design is also a great choice for your windows.

Consider alternative glass

In recent years, new types of glass have emerged that may be able to deter birds without causing any disruption to humans’ views at all. This material takes advantage of the fact that birds can see ultraviolet light, while humans can’t. A typical sheet of UV glass contains an irregular pattern of crisscrossing lines or other shapes that are visible on the UV spectrum, but can’t be detected by human eyes. This makes the glass look completely clear to us, while birds see a solid barrier of reflected UV light. This specialty glass may be more effective in sunny areas than in cloudy ones, so consult a specialist if you’re in the market for high-tech bird-safe windows.

Support bird-safe buildings

Like most systemic problems, window strike fatalities require a systemic solution. Taking action at the individual level will certainly help save avian lives, but it’s also necessary to enact change on a much larger scale by pushing for bird-safe building laws and encouraging businesses to take responsibility for the window collisions they cause.

[Related: How to build a house that stays cool without AC]

Houses and apartments typically only have a handful of windows surrounded by solid walls. Office buildings and retail locations, on the other hand, use far more glass and can cause far more fatalities. Pressuring your employer, local businesses you love, and other institutions to take action is one of the best ways you can help protect birds until your local, state, or federal government enacts legislation to make these protections law.

Help window strike victims

If you see a bird on the ground outside your home, office, or another building, approach it with caution and check to see if it’s still alive. You can report dead birds to iNaturalist, which tracks window strike fatalities by species. If the bird is still alive but appears injured or disoriented, carefully place it in a paper shopping bag and clip the top closed. This makeshift “bird ambulance” is the best way to transport an impaired bird to your local wildlife rehabilitation center.

The post How to help birds avoid crashing into your windows appeared first on Popular Science.

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Plenty of articles about gardening “hacks” assume that everyone has access to truckloads of nutritious soil and enough space for plenty of plants. This will not be one of them. We know these gardening staples aren’t always easy to come by, especially if you live in a city. Thankfully, there are some veggies that can regenerate using water and sunlight alone. 

The premise behind regrowing vegetable scraps in water is simple: plants are generally built to harness energy from the sun and nutrients from the earth. A small glass or dish of water won’t provide the same nutrients as hearty soil, but plants can still use it to grow new tasty shoots or soil-ready roots.

[Related: Why I can never eat onions or garlic again]

Plants that will grow roots

Let’s say you have access to a pot of soil or two, but don’t have the patience (or the green thumbs) to grow veggies from seed. Good news: water and sunlight can also encourage veggie scraps from your kitchen to grow roots that will sustain the larger plant in soil. Develop these strong, healthy roots in H2O first, then transplant the vegetable into some nice dirt.

Herbs

It only takes one sprig of cilantro, thyme, basil, or another herb to regrow a whole plant. Next time you’re using your favorite herb in the kitchen, set aside a healthy shoot with a few leaves growing on it—the stem below the lowest leaf should be a few inches long. Then use a toothpick or bent paperclip to suspend this sprig in a small glass of water. Submerge the bottom of the stem, but keep the leaves dry. You should soon see roots start to sprout underwater. When the roots are more than an inch long, transfer the mini plant to soil—the part that was underwater should now be under dirt. With diligent watering, sunlight, and patience, your little herb can grow into a full-sized plant.

The post 6 ways to magically regrow vegetables in only water appeared first on Popular Science.

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As the weather begins to cool, many animals’ thoughts turn to hibernation. Tortoises begin digging burrows, bears fatten up for the winter, and Popular Science writers turn to a steady diet of hot chocolate and cheesy pasta dishes. Snakes are also eager to get cozy during the colder months, and they may slither into your home to satisfy their needs.

There are around 50 species of these noodly reptiles in North America, and yes, a handful of them are venomous. But while snakes are predators to small rodents, they’re generally harmless to humans and aren’t interested in hanging out—the vast majority of human-snake interactions happen by accident, often startling both parties. Snakes will only enter human dwellings in search of shelter, warmth, tasty mice, or a combination of the three. A little diligence and a level head are all you need to handle these unexpected visitors.

The only time you should take action when you see a snake outdoors is if you suspect it to be venomous. A good rule of thumb is to practice extreme caution around snakes that have pointy triangular heads, brightly colored bodies, thin vertical pupils, or a rattle on their tails. However, venomous snakes differ by region, so it’s best to familiarize yourself with the ones that call your area home. If you see a snake that could be venomous, call your local animal control office or wildlife center for advice on what to do. Don’t approach or try to handle the snake, and don’t kill it just for existing: it lives outdoors, and it means you no harm.

DIY snake wrangling

As snakes prepare for hibernation, they seek out warm, enclosed spaces where they can shelter from the elements. Unfortunately for humans, this may include sheds, crawlspaces, and basements. Occasionally, a snake may even find its way into the living area of your house. This is extremely rare, but even if it happens to you, there’s usually no cause for alarm.

If the snake is too large to effectively sweep outside, cover it with a large container like a cardboard box or a plastic storage bin. Place a weight on top of the container to ensure the snake stays trapped underneath. Then survey the tools at your disposal and plot an exit route. A snow shovel or trash can can work to scoop a snake up. You should also close off the room the snake is in so it can’t scoot into other areas of your home once you release it from Snake Jail. When it’s time, lift the container and scoop up your slithery intruder.

If you have thick gardening gloves, it’s possible to pick up a snake and simply carry it outside. Another popular hands-on method is to toss a towel or blanket over the snake and quickly bundle it outside. If you opt for either of these methods, make absolutely sure that the snake is not venomous by thoroughly researching its markings and other features. These endeavors are not for the faint of heart—if you’re afraid of snakes or easily alarmed in general, you may not be the best choice for amateur snake wrangling. The closer you are to a snake, the more likely you are to be bitten.

If you suspect the snake in your home may be venomous or if it’s acting aggressively, call in the professionals. Don’t attempt to handle a venomous snake by yourself. Many pest control services offer snake removal in areas where these reptiles are common. If you decide to use their services, be sure to ask what will happen to the snake once it’s removed. If you don’t like what you hear (like the snake will be released outside of its range, or killed), see if you can find a pro who will give it a more satisfactory ending. Some local governments also have wildlife agencies that will help you handle a wayward snake.

How to reduce snake encounters

The best way to stop a snake encounter before it happens is to take a few simple steps to snake-proof your home and yard. 

• Remove or block off places where snakes can hang out: tall grasses, piles of lawn debris, and burrows left behind by other animals are all popular snake locations. Keeping grass and other ground cover short where you’re likely to be active and filling in any hollows with gravel can keep snakes out from underfoot.
• Seal any openings in the exterior of your home or other buildings on your property. This includes any entrances to the spaces inside walls or underneath floorboards. A small piece of wire mesh usually does the trick.
• If you have a pool or another body of water, it’s likely to attract snakes. Try pouring a natural snake repellent like white vinegar around the water source to keep them away.
• If you have a rodent issue in or around your building, call a pest control expert to handle the problem at its source. Fewer prey animals will make your area less attractive to snakes.
• Keep all pet and wildlife food off the ground where snakes can’t reach it. It’s also a good idea to mask its smell by keeping it in sealed containers.

The post The best ways to wrangle, repel, and just get snakes out of your home appeared first on Popular Science.

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As the weather turns cooler, many of us are thinking ahead to the long winter months we’ll spend bundled up indoors to avoid the chill. Bears are no different. With hibernation approaching, many are on the prowl for calorie-rich foods that can help them build up fat and energy for a long winter’s snooze. Some bears are so good at bulking up that they’ve even become minor internet celebrities.

Many folks see nothing wrong with tossing sandwich crusts to a squirrel or feeding ducks at the park. But human food can quickly cross the line between a one-time treat and a wildlife magnet, especially when it comes to hungry bears. Even if you don’t live in bear territory, you may still be at risk of attracting these predators with unsecured garbage. Bears have been known to wander through residential areas in search of an easy meal—and if one finds an accessible source of tasty scraps on your property, it’s likely to return for seconds. This means it’s vital to keep your kitchen trash from becoming a bear’s treasure by securing it properly.

Simply hiding your cans from sight won’t work: bears find human food by its smell, and have been known to demolish simple structures in order to reach it. That’s why having no trash outdoors at all is the safest option. You can also reduce outdoor food odors by washing out all containers before throwing them away and keeping edible garbage inside until trash day. 

Pro tip: If your indoor garbage can doesn’t hide the smell of decaying trash, try tossing your food waste into a small bag in your freezer. The scraps will freeze solid and won’t decay. Then simply throw the whole frozen bag in your outdoor garbage right before trash pickup.

Use reinforced trash cans

Some specialty trash cans are designed to be bear-proof, or at least bear-resistant. However, depending on where you live, your trash pickup service may not support the use of these cans. If you need to keep your trash cans outside and can’t use bear-proof ones, consider strengthening the ones you already have. You can do this by adding locking mechanisms to their lids, securing them upright to trees or fences, or reinforcing them with metal bars to keep them from crumpling under a bear’s body weight. These modifications don’t have to be expensive—most of them only require a few tools and supplies from your local hardware store.

[Related: Simple tips for getting black bears to leave you alone]

Build a protective structure

Another way to keep bears out of your trash is to stash outdoor cans inside a sturdy protective structure designed for that purpose. The most secure structure for this purpose is your home itself, but creating an outdoor locker is a good option if you’re not able to store your trash indoors. You can buy bear-resistant trash can enclosures online or even build one yourself. Make sure the structure is enclosed on all sides, including on top and underneath the cans. Hungry bears can easily climb over or tunnel under ordinary wood, vinyl, or even chain link fences. Wash these protective structures, as well as the trash cans inside them, frequently with ammonia or bleach (BUT NOT BOTH!) in order to reduce lingering smells. 

Consider bear deterrents

There are a number of other ways to deter bears from entering your property and noshing on your trash. These include setting up electric fences, training a guard animal like a dog to warn you of any intruding bears, rigging motion-sensing strobe lights to go off when they detect a bear, placing scarecrows around your property, and many more. But while these methods may work in the short term, bears will eventually get used to most of them and learn to disregard them in the pursuit of food. Preventing trash-eating at its source—the trash—will almost always be easier and less expensive than these other creative bear-scare tactics.

The post How to keep fat bears (and other bears) out of your trash appeared first on Popular Science.

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Wildfires are spreading farther and wreaking more havoc than they have in recent memory. In an attempt to combat the flames, fire experts and ordinary civilians alike are turning to a flashy method of protecting historic trees and precious buildings: wrapping them in wildfire-resistant foil. 

This technique isn’t new: fire departments in wildfire country have been using foil wrap for decades to protect structures like ranger stations, monuments, and remote US Forest Service buildings. But recent photos of houses miraculously intact amidst smoldering rubble have inspired some homeowners to take matters into their own hands—at times even shelling out big money for the same shiny wrapping material used by the pros.

Other homeowners have opted for a higher-tech approach: a few weeks after Raymond’s success, Martin Dikey spent more than $6,000 on fire-resistant wrapping foil laced with fiberglass and acrylic adhesive to save his second home, a wooden house on the California side of Lake Tahoe. This highly engineered material is the same stuff the Forest Service and National Park Service use to protect sensitive structures. But you can’t just go out and run a few rolls around your home.

“It is not easy to wrap a structure. To do it right, it takes quite a few people, and it has to be fastened correctly,” says Chad Cook, an assistant fire chief at the Ventura County Fire Department in Camarillo, California. He recommends that people only attempt this difficult and expensive process if three factors are all in their favor: access to the proper materials, the timing of the fire threat, and the conditions of the surroundings. 

The proper materials

Wildfires produce three types of heat. The flames themselves give off radiant heat—that’s what you feel when standing close to a campfire. The fire also creates air currents, which carry convected heat, and can bring glowing hot embers along for the ride. Finally, conducted heat occurs when the flames touch something and burn it directly.

[Related: Forest fires leave behind charcoal, and it might be toxic for years]

Effective fire protection guards against all three types of heat. That’s why foil that has been specifically designed to withstand wildfire temperatures using layers of insulating material and a super-shiny outer coating is your best bet for wrapping a house or any other piece of property. Standard aluminum foil from your pantry—even the heavy-duty stuff Raymond used on his cabin—likely won’t cut it in serious wildfire conditions.

“The real issue with foil you would get in the grocery store is it would not stand up to the environment that is created by fire,” says Cook. “It’s too thin, too brittle.” While the shininess of regular aluminum foil can help deflect some of a fire’s radiant heat, it’s too flimsy to protect against convected and conducted heat.

If you’re willing to pay big bucks for proper wrapping material, you’ll also need a few other tools: at least one staple gun with lots of staples, foil tape, multiple ladders, and plenty of help from friends or professionals. Don’t attempt a major wrapping project unless you can get your hands on all of these items well before a wildfire arrives.

The timing

Foil wrapping usually involves stapling long sheets of wrapping material directly onto a structure’s exterior. These sheets must be properly overlapped and sealed with staples or foil tape to keep wind from prying them loose. Any vulnerability in this barrier could allow embers to sneak through the wrapping and ignite the building inside. This makes it a precise, laborious job that can’t be rushed. 

“It takes longer than you think to apply structure wrap,” says Cook. “It is a feat to wrap a large house or a cabin.” He recalls participating in wrapping projects that took a team of firefighters more than 10 hours to cover a single building. And even with four professional contractors helping him, Dikey said his Lake Tahoe home took 12 and a half hours to wrap. For this reason, it is crucial to leave way more time to wrap a structure than you think you’ll need.

If you decide to embark on a wrapping project, heed local warnings about approaching fires and always prioritize personal safety over your possessions. Start as many days before the fire arrives as you can, and never ignore an evacuation order to wrap your home last-minute. If you don’t have enough time to completely cover your home well before danger arrives, you can still protect it by covering its windows, vents, and any other openings where embers could find their way inside. And if you can only cover one side of your house, choose the one with the most trees, grasses, vegetation, and debris nearby, Cook says. 

The surrounding conditions

Isolated buildings in well-cleared, remote areas are the best candidates for foil wrapping. This is because organic material provides fuel for wildfires—and its absence can prevent the flames from lingering around your home. “The best measure you can take is to keep your property clean of fuel and debris,” says Cook. “You have to maintain the land… and keep growth to a minimum.”

So what if your home only has a few trees around it? Firefighters have successfully used structure wrap to protect ancient sequoia trees from burning by swaddling their bases in the material. You could do the same for the trees around your house, but Cook says the flames will likely just spread to the tops of adjacent trees, becoming a “crown fire” that travels between upper branches to reach your house. This means that it’s best to use foil to cover the most vulnerable parts of the structure itself, rather than the fuel sources around it.

If time, money, or logistics aren’t all on your side, Cook recommends exploring another last-minute protection option: flame-resistant gel. This sprayable substance is cheaper and easier to apply than foil wrapping, and can help insulate your possessions against all three types of heat. 

“It sticks to the side of your home and it has a tremendous heat-absorbing capacity,” says Cook. “I have [even] seen people cover their automobiles with it.” He also recommends investing in a fireproof safe to store your most valuable possessions. That way, even if you can’t protect your home, the most important items within it still have a shot at survival.

The post Can you really use foil to fireproof your house? appeared first on Popular Science.

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Tortoises often appear in legends and fairy tales—but they can also appear in your own backyard. North America is home to four species of wild tortoise, all sharing similar characteristics: domed shells, clawed feet, and a lovably slow gait. 

While you may be accustomed to seeing turtles in your local ponds and parks, wild tortoise sightings are usually rarer. But depending on where you live, you still may be able to catch a glimpse of these majestic reptiles. With a little effort and a lot of patience, you can make your property a prime spot for tortoise visitors.

Berlandier’s tortoise

Also called the Texas Tortoise, this beauty is mostly found in the southernmost point of Texas.

Desert tortoises

These iconic tortoises are found in the southwest, particularly in central and western Arizona, southern Nevada, and southeastern California. While long thought to be just one species, there are actually two different desert tortoises with similar ranges and characteristics: Morafka’s desert tortoise and Agassiz’s desert tortoise.

Gopher tortoise

This social tortoise resides in the southeastern US, particularly in Florida and the states that border it. 

If you don’t live in one of these areas, there’s still a chance you could see an adventurous tortoise in the wild—but the odds are pretty low. Instead, we recommend hitting up your local pond to get a glimpse of wild turtles and saving the tortoise-spotting for your next trip to the zoo or a natural history museum.

Be sure to keep your pets leashed and supervised, as they can easily harm tortoises and even earn a nasty scratch in return. Stay vigilant as you mow your lawn or use any other machinery outdoors to be sure no tortoises are around. True to their reputation, these reptiles are slow-moving and can’t easily escape an eager dog or a careless lawnmower.  

[Related: How to create a perfectly imperfect lawn]

Some ornamental foliage is toxic to wild tortoises, and you should remove it from ground level if at all possible. Oleander, chinaberry trees, tobacco plants, and toadstools are all poisonous to these slow fellows. Tomato plants, holly, and many flower species are also potentially harmful. 

Here is a comprehensive list of plants that can harm your shelled friends. If you can, plant these in pots or raised beds so that tortoises can’t reach them from ground level. 

Use a shallow dish or an overturned trash can lid as a water receptacle, and change it regularly to avoid contamination. If needed, dig a shallow indentation in your yard to place the water vessel into. This will keep the water at ground level, where a tortoise of any size can easily take a drink or even step into the water and rehydrate through the skin. 

If you use a vessel deeper than a few inches, place a small board at an angle into the water. This will help any small tortoises climb back out if they get stuck during bathtime.

A much better food option is to plant the grasses and native flora that tortoises eat in the wild. This will provide a sustainable food source that they can return to again and again.

[Related: Build a garden that’ll have pollinators buzzin’]

The best native plants for tortoises to eat will depend on where you live and what species you’re most likely to encounter. Desert tortoises in the Arizona desert like prickly pear cactuses, mallows, curly mesquite grass, and more. Gopher tortoises in Florida are fond of plants like grapes, paintbrush flowers, and buttonweed. 

Research your local native plants to see how to add a natural buffet to your property. Just make sure that any edible areas are free of gravel and small rocks, as tortoises can ingest these by accident. Regular soil and large stones are a better bet.

If you suspect a tortoise is burrowing on your property, don’t disturb it—simply allow your yard to mimic the surrounding natural environment by avoiding practices like overwatering and using pesticides. 

You can also give tortoises a helping hand by creating a sheltered enclosure in your yard out of cinder blocks or an old trash can. Cover these artificial burrows with soil for insulation, and make sure they’re at or above ground level to avoid water runoff seeping in and filling them up. 

Many reptiles hibernate during the winter months, so autumn is a great time to look into burrow construction—especially if tortoises regularly pass through your property. If they don’t, your makeshift shelters can still provide a winter retreat for a host of other local wildlife.

The post How to turn your garden into a tortoise sanctuary appeared first on Popular Science.

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Crossing paths with a porcupine isn’t an experience you’ll soon forget—it’s hard not to be intimidated by a ball of spines the size of a small dog. But the animal behind this menacing exterior is actually a harmless herbivore. 

True to its name, the North American Porcupine’s habitat goes all the way across New England, the Western US, Canada, and up into Alaska. While it’s one of the continent’s largest rodents— measuring up to three feet in length—this spiny friend is nothing to be afraid of.

Coming too close to a porcupine can make it agitated and nervous, and it may deploy its best defense mechanism—swinging its thickly quilled tail at you in the hopes of lodging a few spines into your skin. 

[Related: These animals will self-amputate arms, legs, and even sex organs to survive]

A porcupine’s quills are only lightly attached to its body, meaning they will easily come loose when used in self-defense. It’s extremely important to keep dogs and other pets away from porcupines, as these rodents won’t hesitate to defend themselves, and can take even a curious sniff as a threat if they feel vulnerable.

But porcupines aren’t looking for trouble. In fact, they are generally solitary creatures who prefer to stay away from humans and other animals when possible. As long as you keep a respectful distance of 20 feet or more, you’re very unlikely to receive a nasty tail swipe.

But there are also other signs to look out for. Porcupines love eating the nutritious under-layer of tree bark and will go so far as to chew it off of trees in large portions. If you see a tree with large patches of bark missing, especially if these areas feature scratches or tooth marks, you may have stumbled across a porcupine’s meal.

The second best way to identify porcupines is by sound. They’re too large to move silently, so rustling and scratching noises in the underbrush or up in the branches of young trees is a good sign that they may be nearby. You may also hear their distinctive vocalizations, which some describe as “kazoo-like.” Their whines, squeaks, and chittering sounds are unlike many other common forest animals, so listen carefully if you’re eager to know their whereabouts.

Your last line of defense against encountering a porcupine by surprise is your sense of smell. When threatened, porcupines release a strong odor meant to warn predators that quills are about to be deployed. It’s unlikely that you’ll come dangerously close to this large rodent without seeing or hearing it first, but trust your nose while exploring the forest—if you detect a sudden smell, stop where you are and look around for porcupines. If you see or hear one, slowly back away and give it plenty of space as you continue your trek through nature.

If you spot one in your yard, the best option is to let it trundle away of its own volition. This will usually happen within a few minutes, but they may want to hang around on your property longer if there’s a particularly appetizing tree or a source of salt.

Porcupines are almost always on the hunt for salt, which is a key nutrient that’s difficult to find in the wild. Ice-melting road salt, salty food scraps, and even the dried crusts of salt on sweaty gardening gloves and other work gear can prove irresistible to porcupines. Secure these items in sealed containers in your garage, shed, or home to make sure porcupines can’t access them. 

[Related: How winter salt actually works]

If you’re eager to catch a glimpse of these critters, you can leave out a salt block especially for them to find. Place it away from your home in a secluded location, perhaps near a few trees, and see if any spiky guests drop by.

In general, a porcupine on your property is no cause for alarm. The worst damage it can inflict is slowly killing a tree by stripping away much of its protective bark and eating all the green shoots off new branches. If a porcupine is snacking on a tree in your yard that will cause damage if it falls, contact your local wildlife department for advice on what to do. There are no commercial products that have been proven to repel porcupines, but an expert wildlife handler may be able to trap and relocate the animal before it causes too much damage. 

The post How to not get pricked by a North American porcupine appeared first on Popular Science.

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Autumn is coming, which means marshmallow season is just around the corner. Whether you toast these fluffy candies over a campfire, float them in a mug of hot cocoa, or simply eat them plain, ’mallows are a quintessential fall and winter treat. A little patience and a whole lot of science goes into making these confections—and you don’t even need a candy thermometer to whip them up from scratch.

Sugar science 101

Understanding the marshmallow-making process requires some elementary knowledge of how sugar changes during candymaking, as a major component of delicious, fluffy marshmallows is a thick sugar syrup. From the thread stage all the way up to the hard crack stage, the consistency of this sweet goop is vitally important to the end product. 

Most home marshmallow-makers aim for the soft ball or firm ball stages, which refer to the consistency a small dollop of boiled sugar exhibits when dropped into a cup of cold water. The New York Times, Food Network, Alton Brown, and Epicurious all suggest heating your sugar to 240 degrees Fahrenheit—the upper end of the soft ball stage. Other recipes say a little hotter is better, recommending the firm ball stage at 242 to 245 degrees. Some candymaking guides even place marshmallows in the hard ball category of 250 to 265 degrees. 

All that can be intimidating and stressful, and not everyone has a candy thermometer at hand. Our recipe, however, forgoes the precise temperature monitoring that many recipes call for. Instead, we’ll use timing and a real-time consistency test to check that our sugar is ready to whip into marshmallows.

Warning: Boiled sugar is tricky to work with—it’s sticky, changes states quickly, and can cause nasty burns. Never leave it unattended while it’s heating, and keep a bowl of cold water nearby in case any gets on your bare skin.

Stats

• Time: 45 minutes, plus 4-6 hours to set
• Cost: $10
• Difficulty: Hard

Materials

• 2 cups of granulated white sugar
• ½ cup of light corn syrup
• 3 quarter-ounce packets of unflavored gelatin powder (around 7 teaspoons)
• 1 tablespoon of vanilla extract
• Pinch of salt
• ½ cup of powdered sugar 
• Water
• Butter

Tools

• Cooking pot
• Whisk
• Large bowl
• Small dish
• Electric mixer with a whisk attachment
• Baking pan
• Plastic wrap
• Sharp knife

1. Line your baking pan with buttered plastic wrap. This may sound strange, but you’re about to create an incredibly sticky substance. Everything that touches your marshmallows, including tools and utensils, should be greased to prevent sticking.

2. Pour a half-cup of cold water into your mixing bowl, then sprinkle the gelatin powder into it. Don’t stir—just leave the gelatin to soak and “bloom” for around 10 minutes while you complete steps 3 through 6.

3. Combine a half-cup of water, the corn syrup, and the granulated sugar in a cooking pot. Whisk these ingredients together, then put your utensils aside and place a small dish of cool water next to your cooking surface.

4. Bring the sugar mixture to a boil over medium heat. Resist the urge to stir it—any unnecessary agitation can disrupt the boiling process and coax the sugar back into a solid form. Instead, simply swirl the cooking pot occasionally to distribute the heat.

• Pro tip: If you see sugar crystals forming around the edges of the pot as the mixture heats up, place a lid on the pot for a minute or two. The condensation that builds up under the lid will drip back down the sides of the pot, washing these crystals back into the mixture below.

5. Cover the mixture with a lid and let it boil for 60 seconds without stirring.

6. Reduce the heat and check your consistency. Taking care not to disturb the boiling sugar mixture too much, scoop up a small amount with a spoon and drop it into your dish of water. The syrup should form into a soft, squishy ball with a consistency similar to a chewy caramel candy. If it does, move on to step 7. If it doesn’t, check below for how to proceed:

• If the syrup dissolves into the water or forms thin, loose threads that can’t be easily gathered into a ball, it’s in the thread stage. Boil your sugar on medium heat for 1 minute longer and perform this test again with a fresh dish of water. 
• If the syrup forms a hard, tacky clump or thick threads that can’t be easily formed into a ball, you’ve boiled the mixture for too long. Add a small amount of water and bring the mixture to a boil again, then redo the test with a fresh dish of water.
• If the syrup has taken on an orange or brown color without a burnt smell, you’ve made caramel. Pat yourself on the back and dip some apple slices in it, then start the sugar mixture from scratch.
• If the syrup begins to look or smell burnt, it probably is. Turn off the heat, soak your cooking pot—inside and out—in hot water until everything is cool enough to handle, and wash the burnt sugar out. Then, start the sugar mixture from scratch.

7. Wait for the bubbles to subside, then pour the sugar syrup into your mixing bowl and mix on medium-low speed. If possible, let the syrup run down the inside of the mixer’s bowl before it comes into contact with the gelatin below—this will cool it down a bit.

8. Add the pinch of salt and increase the mixer speed to medium-high.

9. Beat the marshmallow mixture for 10 to 12 minutes. It should nearly triple in size and acquire the white, fluffy consistency we all know and love. It will also cool to just above room temperature during this time.

• Note: You can do this with a handheld electric mixer, but your arms will thank you if you use a stand mixer.

10. Add the vanilla extract and beat until just combined.

11. Pour your marshmallow “dough” into the prepared pan and let it rest for 4 to 6 hours. Cover it with another buttered sheet of plastic wrap to protect the surface. Don’t put it in the fridge or freezer to speed up the cooling process—this will lead to tough marshmallows.

12. Slice and dust your finished marshmallows. Use a sharp knife greased with butter to cleanly slice the finished marshmallows. Powder them generously on all sides with powdered sugar. They are now ready to gift, roast, eat, and enjoy.

The post Can you handle these fat, fluffy DIY marshmallows? Let’s find out. appeared first on Popular Science.

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Before the dawn of synthetic dyes, all fabric was colored with natural pigments. Today, you can continue this ancient practice in your kitchen with a few simple tools and common ingredients that are safe for your cookware and available at any grocery store.

Stats

• Time: About 3 hours, plus 12 to 24 hours of steeping
• Cost: About $25 per color
• Difficulty: Moderate

Materials

• A 100 percent cotton T-shirt (or a similar volume of cloth made from natural fibers)
• 2 to 3 cups of white vinegar
• Dye ingredient of choice (see Step 1)
• Water
• (Optional) salt

Tools

• 2 large cooking pots
• Large jar with lid (half-gallon jars work well)
• Sieve (or slotted spoon)
• Tongs
• Plastic or wooden clothes hanger
• (Optional) iron and ironing board

Instructions

1. Prepare your dye bath in a large cooking pot. Choose the color you want to achieve from the list below, and always prepare more dye than you think you’ll need, as hours simmering on the stove will reduce its volume. Your finished dye (with food items removed) should fill a large cooking pot at least halfway.

• Yellow: Remove the skins from eight to 10 yellow onions. Place the skins in a cooking pot and cover them with water, then simmer on low heat for 30 to 45 minutes. Remove the skins with a sieve or slotted spoon.
• Pink: Remove the outer leaves and roughly chop a small red cabbage. Maximize its surface area by separating the tightly packed layers. Simmer 3 cups of cabbage, 6 cups of water, and 2 to 3 teaspoons of salt for one hour. Remove the cabbage pieces with a sieve or slotted spoon.
• Green: Roughly chop or rip up one 16-ounce container of spinach leaves. Simmer them in a pot of water for one hour. Remove the spinach pieces with a sieve or slotted spoon.
• Peach: Remove the skins and pits from six to 10 avocados. You can use the tasty flesh for another recipe. Simmer (but do not boil) the skins and pits in a pot of water for one hour. Remove the skins and pit pieces with a sieve or slotted spoon. You can also try salvaging unwanted skins and pits from a local restaurant by asking very nicely.
• Purple: Cover about 16 ounces of dried black beans with 1 inch of water. Let them soak for two to three hours or as long as overnight, stirring occasionally. Our tests found that beans soaked for two hours and beans soaked for 18 hours produced a similar final color. You may need to add a little extra water as the dried beans soak it up. Remove the soaked beans with a sieve or slotted spoon. You can now use them in another recipe if you like.
• Fuchsia: Add 6 tablespoons of dried hibiscus flowers—available in the tea aisle or international foods section of many grocery stores—to 6 to 8 cups of water and simmer for 30 minutes. Be sure to use real hibiscus tea (made from only the dried flowers) and not hibiscus-flavored herbal tea. Remove the flowers with a sieve or slotted spoon.
• Orange: Shred six to eight large carrots into a cooking pot and cover them with water. Add a handful of salt and simmer for one hour. Remove the carrot shreds with a sieve or slotted spoon.

2. Heat one part vinegar and four parts water in another large cooking pot. This is your mordant liquid, which removes finishing chemicals from your fabric and makes the dye adhere better to the cloth. Prepare enough to cover all the fabric you plan to dye with enough room for it to move around when stirred.

3. Simmer your fabric in the mordant for one hour. Begin this process when your dye bath is around one hour from being finished. 

• Note: For black bean dye, you will need to make the mordant at least an hour after you start the dye bath. For onion skin or hibiscus dye, you should get the mordant simmering, then start the dye bath. For most of the other dyes listed above, start the dye around the same time as the mordant.

4. Remove the fabric from the mordant and place it in the dye bath. Press any excess vinegar-water out of your fabric with tongs or a colander before adding it to the dye.

• Warning: If you haven’t removed produce chunks or ingredient residue from the dye bath, do so now, before you put the fabric in. Your dye should be lightly simmering when you add the fabric.

5. Simmer your fabric in its dye bath for one hour.

6. Turn off the heat and let your dye bath cool. Keep the fabric soaking in it.

7. Transfer your dye and fabric to a large glass jar and soak overnight. When its contents are completely cool, you can put the lid on the jar. You can also leave your cooled dye and fabric in the cooking pot with a lid on, but there’s a small chance that the dye may stain your pot.

8. Remove the dyed fabric and rinse it with cool water. You can do this in a sink or use your garden hose outside—this natural dye won’t hurt your lawn. Some dye will wash out, but the fabric should still hold some color. If you like, you can keep the remaining dye in its jar for future projects. 

9. Hang your dyed fabric to air dry using plastic or wooden materials. Learn from the author’s mistake: do not use uncoated metal hangers, clothespins, or drying racks to dry the fabric. Any metal that comes into direct contact with the wet fabric can stain it permanently.

10. (Optional) Iron the finished product. This isn’t necessary, but the heat can help set the color and give your garments a professional look.

The post Make natural fabric dye with vegetable scraps appeared first on Popular Science.

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You don’t need to be a professional chocolatier to make beautiful tempered chocolate. Achieving its signature shiny, crisp finish may take a few attempts to master, but some common kitchen tools and a little patience can go a long way. Before you know it, you’ll be making confections worthy of a high-end candy counter. 

Why temper chocolate?

[Related: Naturally pink chocolate is finally here. But how is it made?]

Tempered chocolate is about more than looks—it stays solid at room temperature so it doesn’t need refrigeration, and it’s tougher than candy you melt and recool without precision. This makes it a top-notch exterior coating for truffles, cakes, and other sweets with delicate textures. 

While hot weather can still melt tempered chocolate over time, its stability can be a lifesaver for summertime treats.

How to temper chocolate

Stats

• Time: 30 to 35 minutes
• Cost: $15
• Difficulty: Hard

Materials

• 1 large bar of premium baking dark chocolate

Tools

• Large serrated knife
• A saucepan, double boiler, or microwave-safe bowl
• A spatula
• A food thermometer
• (Optional) A large bowl of lukewarm water

Instructions

1. Chop up the chocolate. Use a large serrated knife. Set one third of the chopped chocolate aside.

• Note: Avoid using chocolate chips. They often have additives that will help them hold their shape during baking, but will disrupt the tempering process.

2. Melt the chocolate on low heat. You can do this in a microwave, a bowl placed over a pot of simmering water, or a double boiler. Stirring constantly is key, as it’ll prevent the chocolate from burning as it heats up, or solidifying as it cools down.

• Pro tip:  Use a spoon or spatula, as a whisk will add too much air into the mixture and keep the cocoa butter crystals from packing tightly together.

• Warning: Don’t place a pot lid over your chocolate—this will cause any steam coming off of the chocolate to condense and drip back into it. Even the smallest amount of water can ruin a batch of melted chocolate. 

3. Very carefully, heat your melted chocolate to 115 degrees Fahrenheit while stirring constantly. A couple degrees above or below this temperature is okay, but don’t let it exceed 120 degrees.

• Pro tip: Be sure to use a thermometer that can accurately measure low temperatures—in the 80- to 90-degree range—as well as high ones. “A human thermometer actually works the best. You’re at really low temperatures for most things in the kitchen,” says food scientist Pat Polowsky, who currently works for Walmart’s health and wellness division. 

4. Remove the chocolate from the heat and stir in the unmelted chocolate you put aside earlier. 

5. Stir and monitor the chocolate until it reaches 84 degrees. This could take as long as 15 minutes. Be patient and don’t stop stirring. 

• Warning: “Never put [the melted chocolate] in the fridge—that’s a cardinal sin in chocolate-making,” Polowsky cautions. “If you put tempered chocolate in the fridge, even though it’s not melting, these [weaker] crystals will slowly form over time.”

6. (Optional) Dunk the bottom of your melting vessel into lukewarm water. If warm weather is giving you trouble lowering the melted chocolate’s temperature, this will speed up the process. Just make sure no water comes in contact with the chocolate itself. 

7. Heat the chocolate again. Use low heat and monitor its temperature carefully. When it reaches 88 degrees, remove it from the heat source. Your melted chocolate is now ready to pipe, dip, spread, and mold.

If your end result doesn’t come out as planned, don’t fret—you can always re-melt it and restart the tempering process. And even if you aren’t satisfied with its appearance, poorly tempered chocolate still tastes great. This process is about adjusting the chocolate’s appearance and heat resilience, and doesn’t compromise the flavor at all.

So, what is “tempering” anyway?

Tempering is the process of using heat to break down the cocoa butter crystals in chocolate and then allowing only the strongest and most stable ones to re-form.

[Related: Cacao growers are bugging out about our chocolate supply]

The cocoa butter in chocolate exists in several different types of crystals, which break apart at different temperatures. Tempering starts by thoroughly melting the chocolate to break up all the crystals and then cooling the mixture just enough to let only the strongest ones form again. When they do, they take a shape similar to a tuning fork.

“They have these big long sticks coming off of them, and they can pack in different ways. How they pack dictates how stable they are,” Polowsky says.

As mentioned above, continuously stirring the chocolate as it cools is key, because this keeps it in a melted state while the cocoa butter does its thing. As strong crystals form, they link together in long chains, giving the finished chocolate a sturdy structure and its signature crunch. 

You can save some time and encourage the formation of these crystal chains using a process called seeding. In this technique, adding solid tempered chocolate to the melted mixture provides a starting point for other crystals to latch onto, much like how striking a super-chilled bottle of water causes ice to propagate throughout it.

“You don’t need seed crystals to form tempered chocolate—it just speeds up the process,” Polowsky adds. “It’s also going to help slowly lower that temperature.” 

Once your melted chocolate has cooled enough to allow crystals to form again without solidifying, reheating it breaks down any weaker crystals that may have formed during the cooling process.

The precise temperature to aim for will depend on the type of chocolate you use and its fat content: dark chocolate tempers at a slightly higher temperature than chocolates with higher fat content, like milk and white chocolate. However, the premise will remain the same: heat the chocolate above the ideal temperature for strong crystal formation, then cool it to below that temperature, and finally even it out by re-warming it slightly.

While you may have seen videos of expert chocolatiers pushing melted chocolate around on a huge marble slab in an ice-cold room, the tempering process actually doesn’t require a chilly environment to work properly. A hot kitchen is a perfectly fine place to temper chocolate as long as you take the proper steps to ensure the candy is reaching the right temperatures. 

“You need really precise temperature control to do proper tempering,” Polowsky says. “If you’re able to control and monitor the temperature accurately, then the environment you’re in doesn’t really matter.” 

The post How to temper chocolate—even in hot weather appeared first on Popular Science.

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Whether you’re speeding up tedious paperwork or crafting a unique handmade gift, rubber stamps still have an irreplaceable role in our increasingly digital world. But the ones at craft stores offer a limited selection of generic messages, and ordering a custom design can be pricey. So make your own. A few inexpensive materials are all you need to create a one-of-a-kind piece of art that you (or its lucky recipient) can use again and again.

Stats

• Time: 45 minutes
• Cost: about $25
• Difficulty: Moderate

Materials

• A stamp design, preferably printed on paper
• Translucent tracing paper (or parchment baking paper)
• One block of stamp rubber
• A scrap of wood
• Wood glue

Tools

• A pencil
• A carving tool with a variety of tips
• A permanent marker
• An ink pad
• (Optional) hand saw
• (Optional) sandpaper

Instructions

1. Choose a design. The artwork you use should only feature one color other than the background, because the finished stamp will only be able to convey positive and negative space.

• Pro tip: If this is your first stamp-making experience, try to go with a simple, chunky design rather than one that features thin lines or lettering—these are some of the toughest elements to carve. You can also find a huge selection of free clip art online if you aren’t up to drawing your own design.

2. Size your design. Make sure it matches the desired dimensions of your finished stamp—roughly 4 square inches is a good size to start with. If possible, print out your design at the desired size or render it on another flat surface, like a tablet. 

3. Trace your design onto parchment paper with a pencil. Lay a piece of translucent paper over your design and use a pencil to fill in the areas that you want to be inked by the finished stamp. Go over the design a few times to ensure all the “positive” areas of the design are covered in graphite, while all the “negative” areas are free from extra marks or smudges.

4. Transfer the design onto the carving rubber. Next, position your design near a corner of your carving block, to keep the rest of the rubber free for future stamp-making. Then, firmly press the design onto the carving block, pencil-side-down. Rub the parchment paper firmly with your hand to ensure as much graphite as possible transfers onto the block. When you lift the paper, you should see a mirror image of your design on the surface of the rubber.

5. Prepare your carving tool with the thinnest point available. Speedball makes the most widely available carving tool, so you’ll likely end up with their red plastic one. The back of its handle unscrews, and the spare carving points can be stored inside it. Each carving tip (aside from the knife) features a sharp U-shaped blade perfect for gouging rubber.

6. Begin carving the rubber. Starting with the outline of your design, begin slicing away any blank rubber that borders the graphite-coated areas. Your cuts should only sink a few millimeters into the material. It’s easiest to hold the tool itself steady while turning the rubber block beneath your hand to navigate the blade into tight corners and fine-tune small details.

• Warning: Be very cautious—you can always carve away more rubber later, but you can’t put it back once it’s gone.  

7. Cut your stamp off the rubber block. Switch to your knife tool and separate the area bearing your design from the rest of the rubber. This will make the stamp easier to maneuver as you carve further.

8. Remove larger areas with bigger carving tips. After all your outlines between graphite and blank rubber have been carved, switch to a slightly larger tip and go over them again. Be sure to only remove blank rubber, leaving the design itself intact. Carve a little deeper, but don’t cut any farther than about a third of the way into your rubber block.

Continue switching to progressively larger carving points and removing more and more areas of blank rubber from the surface of your stamp. Eventually, only your graphite design will protrude as a level surface—the rest of the rubber should be indented where you carved the blank areas away.

9. Test your stamp. It’s time to give your stamp a trial run. Brush away all excess rubber crumbs and pat ink onto the stamp with your ink pad. Press the stamp onto a piece of scrap paper and analyze the design it produces. There will likely be extra black lines around the design’s edges where you haven’t carved quite deep enough. 

10. Adjust the stamp to perfection. Using your test stamp as a reference, return to your smallest carving tool and remove any excess rubber. You may have to perform multiple test stamps before you’re satisfied with the finished design.

11. Cut a piece of wood for your stamp’s backing. This step elevates your homemade stamp from a chunk of rubber to a stylish finished product. If you’re comfortable doing so, use a hand saw to cut a scrap of wood to roughly the size and shape of your stamp, leaving a small margin (about 1 centimeter) around all sides. If you’d rather someone else do this, some home goods and lumber supply stores will do it for you. A hobbyist woodworker or commercial wood shop may also let you rummage through their offcuts for a suitable piece. If you don’t have access to these resources, your nearest arts and crafts store likely has some small precut wood pieces that you can use.

12. Stamp the wood. Once you’ve got your hands on a good chunk of wood, ink up your stamp and press it firmly onto the top of the wood piece. This will let you preview what the stamp will look like. Since wood often isn’t completely smooth, you may need to fill in your design a bit with a permanent marker. Try to stamp it in the exact center of your wooden base, as this is where you’ll be attaching the rubber stamp to the underside.

• Warning: If your wood is too rough for your liking, use sandpaper to buff it smooth. Brush away any excess wood dust before stamping your design on top.

13. Attach the finished rubber stamp to its backing. Finally, use strong wood glue to secure the rubber stamp to the bottom of its new wooden base. This wooden topper will allow you to apply even pressure to the stamp whenever you use it, as well as line up your design exactly where you want it to go. Now get a-stampin’.

The post Make a custom rubber stamp to leave your mark on everything appeared first on Popular Science.

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Plastic is everywhere. We wear it, sleep on it, drive around in it, and even eat it. But because much of it is made from natural gas and the byproducts of both the natural gas and crude oil refining processes, no amount of reuse or recycling can “make up” for the environmental harm caused by plastic production. The damage has already been done.

The plastic recycling process is a complex and energy-intensive endeavor popularized by the plastics industry itself. In many cases, it is unclear whether “recyclable” products even have a lesser environmental toll than non-recyclable plastic. However, reducing the amount of plastic waste can still help prevent wildlife deaths, modestly reduce the size of landfills, and prevent harmful chemicals and microplastic particles from entering the environment. For these reasons, it’s worthwhile to recycle the plastic items that you’re able to, rather than just tossing them in the trash.

Plastics bearing the numbers 1 or 2 are often recyclable, while those numbered 3 through 7 are less likely to be. There are various guides that can help give you a better sense of what different types of plastic look like and where they may end up, but there are unfortunately no universal rules for which numbers represent recyclable plastics. This is because different towns, cities, and regions are home to different recycling facilities with different types of machinery. 

[Related: Inside the machine that separates your recyclables]

Some recycling facilities are run by local governments, while many are operated by private companies that collect recyclable materials for profit. Some locations have state-of-the-art equipment, while others can only handle a few types of plastic. Because these details vary so much depending on where you live, your best bet is to research the recycling rules in your area before tossing any plastic items in the blue bin. 

“Bioplastic” is a recent development from the world of materials chemistry that uses plant material rather than fossil fuels to create the complex polymer chains that make up plastic. Many folks assume that because plants are involved, the end result must be biodegradable. But that’s not the case: many bioplastics are chemically identical to traditional plastic, meaning they can stay in the environment for just as long. 

While some bioplastics can be recycled, they often have to be separated from petroleum-based plastics so they can be processed in a different way. The only way to know for sure how to properly dispose of bioplastic items is to carefully read the labels on their packaging and research your local recycling policies. If you’ve been handed a piece of bioplastic, such as a to-go drink cup or a single-use bag, this level of diligence may not be possible. So while bioplastics have the distinct benefit of decreasing our reliance on fossil fuels, they often don’t spare the planet from harmful plastic waste.

How do biodegradable and compostable plastics work?

“Biodegradable” plastic does just that: it degrades over time. While seeing this label may call to mind a gently rotting compost pile, degrading plastic items can be problematic: depending on their specific makeup, they may simply break down into microplastics, which end up in our soil, water, and food supply. Moreover, “biodegradable” plastics often require special recycling facilities. This means that you can’t just toss this type of plastic into a recycling bin or a compost pile and wait for it to dissolve. You’ll need to do more research to determine where and how to dispose of it.

“Compostable” plastics make an even bolder claim: that not only will they degrade over time, but that they will break down into a few simple component parts: the biomass that we recognize as compost, along with water, carbon dioxide, and some inorganic compounds. It’s a common misconception that “compostable” plastic items can be tossed onto your home compost pile along with carrot tops, eggshells, and banana peels. Instead, these plastics need to be collected and treated at special composting facilities that have the right combination of heat, microorganisms, and chemicals to carry out the recycling process. While scientists are working on compostable plastics that can break down in your own backyard, this material is not yet available for public use.

What can we do if we can’t recycle?

The post What do the numbers on plastic mean? And 3 other trashy questions, answered. appeared first on Popular Science.

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Straighten your back. Now unclench your jaw. Okay, now release the tension from your shoulders. Much better. Did these tips totally call you out? If so, you’re not alone: we all habitually assume certain postures, often without even realizing what we’re doing. But the way we sit, stand, and move can influence other people’s opinions about us before we’ve said one word to them. That’s why it’s key to understand what you’re doing and use it to your advantage. 

Understanding cues and assumptions

As many of us return to in-person interactions after a long period of phone calls and seated video meetings, our real-world skills may feel a little rusty. But one interpretive skill will likely remain fairly strong: our ability to read the body language of others.

“As humans, we are highly visual interpreters,” says Karen Donaldson, a body language expert who has authored two handbooks on improving self-confidence through body language. “Many gestures can be easily read because they are based on innate and learned human behavior… we readily and easily take messages from others’ body language before we listen to what they say.” 

Confident body language, therefore, can be just as important as confident speech. In some cases, it can even override what we say: true facts delivered by a meek and antsy speaker can come off as less credible than blatant lies delivered with perfect self-assurance. Luckily, you only need to focus on a few specific action areas to fine-tune your body language for success.

Posture is everything

Simply standing still can offer those around you a world of information about your authority and confidence. Whether you’re hanging out at a party or speaking in front of a crowd, you can keep your audience engaged by maintaining what Donaldson calls an “open” posture.

“Open your chest when standing, feet slightly beyond hip-width apart, head up, chin parallel to the ground to create an open, welcoming, and powerful appearance,” she says. “Take up more physical space when sitting or standing—it implies that a person is confident.”

[Related: Perfect posture doesn’t exist—but you can still fix yours]

This especially applies to women and members of other marginalized groups, many of whom may habitually avoid this assertive body language. Donaldson recommends that these individuals practice standing with their feet farther apart than they’re used to, making it more difficult for others to encroach on their physical space. 

“Walk with intention: your walk should look purposeful, controlled, calm, and unhurried,” says Donaldson. “Take medium, shoulder length steps. Not too short, or you’ll look nervous and in a haste, and too big a step makes you look awkward.” She adds that your movements are key to the first impression you make when you enter a room.

“Walk into rooms with intention and don’t quietly inch in,” she says. “Intentional and more assertive movements allow you to appear reassured of yourself.”

Facial expressions are key

Most of us already know that smiles mean happiness, while frowning signals displeasure. But more subtle facial cues can inform the way others perceive our competence in addition to our moods. One major way to convey confidence with your facial expressions is through eye contact: try to maintain it throughout conversations to show your comfort interacting with others.

“Ensure that you aren’t the first one to stray away from making eye contact—that’s a submissive gesture,” says Donaldson. And while positive expressions like a smile or a nod are helpful in moderation, it’s important to avoid overdoing these elements.

[Related: How to smile without looking like a creep]

“This is one for the ladies or those who identify as a woman: stay away from excessive head nodding,” says Donaldson. “This usually happens during a conversation when a woman wants to show agreement, or demonstrate a ‘united front’ attitude. We continually head-nod as the other person is speaking. This is actually a sign of submissiveness, a sign of passivity, a sign of weakness.”

Instead, she suggests, keep yourself in check by nodding only when you mean it. Putting positive intention behind this common gesture will make it more impactful, and help you appear more confident as well.

Some perceptions are harder to fight

As helpful as the proper body language can be, adjusting your posture and movements can only do so much to prevent negative assumptions about your competence and authority. There are factors beyond your control, from your age and appearance to your sex, race, and gender presentation, that some people will always prioritize over your knowledge and personality. 

The post Exude power and confidence with better body language appeared first on Popular Science.

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A “memory palace” sounds as enticing as it does intimidating, but building your own is easier than you might think. Also known as the Method of Loci, this memorization technique taps into your brain’s ability to store lots of location-based information and applies it to new data you hope to file away for later. Notice that we say “data” here, and not “memories”; the types of information you can store with this method are limited. Depending on what you’re trying to remember, a well-built memory palace may be the perfect tool for you—or it could come up short.

When to use a memory palace

Right now, you’re probably thinking of a sprawling mansion filled with hundreds of rooms, each one containing snippets of your childhood or special days in your life. That’s a great thought, but it’s not an accurate description of this technique.

First, unless you literally grew up in one, your memory palace won’t be a palace at all—it’s meant to be a familiar environment that you know by heart, which we’ll talk more about in the next section. Furthermore, this mental space isn’t designed to hold complex information that you don’t already understand. Only the simplest information—often stuff that can be visualized, or raw data like numbers—can be stored within.

This technique won’t help you comprehend information, it will just make it easier to call to mind. That means you can use it to memorize a long grocery list or the digits of a password, but will probably struggle with applying it to math equations or the meanings of foreign language vocabulary words. According to Barbara Oakley, who has a Ph.D. in systems engineering and has written five books on learning techniques, this is because rapid-recall memorization engages a different part of the brain than more complex memories do.

As you develop your memory storage skills, you’re likely to expand into additional locations to store more information. They don’t have to be indoor spaces: your local park, favorite campground, or an amusement park that you know by heart can also work well. You know a lot more places than you think you do, and since this technique is all in your brain, they don’t even have to be physical spots. The setting of your favorite video game, for example, could work as long as you know it well and can navigate through it in your mind. A fictional environment from a beloved book series, the set of a popular TV show, or a virtual reality space that you visit often can all work as well.

“Nearly half of our brain’s connections relate to our visual systems, so tapping into that system through use of the memory palace technique helps tremendously with jump-starting memory of particular information,” Oakley says. The number of places you choose along your route will depend on how many pieces of data you want to memorize. If you’ve never used the mind palace technique before, try starting small by choosing 10 places in a given location. Write them out in the order you’d naturally encounter them, and make sure you can see them clearly in your mind.

Place data along your path

Populating your memory palace with information is the most crucial part of this process, so don’t rush it. The key is to create a specific, memorable link between the piece of data you’re memorizing and its corresponding place in your familiar location. It’s not enough to simply mash the concepts together and hope you’ll recall them as a pair later. Instead, you have to ascribe an action or event to their relationship that’s funny, bizarre, or otherwise surprising.

If these scenarios sound implausible and stupid, that’s because they are. The more bizarre, action-based, and ridiculous these connections are, the more likely you are to remember them. Envisioning a connection like “the pegs on my coat rack are actually cinnamon sticks” is a nice mental image, but when you try to recall it, you may not remember what particular object the pegs are supposed to be. That’s why you need to tie a distinctive action to every relationship between data and place.

You would continue the pumpkin pie example by traveling through your apartment to the 10 spots you picked, and assigning a spice to each one using a weird, memorable action. Really envision these bizarre scenarios, and write them down in case you forget a few in the short term. With a little time and practice, you will be able to visit the 10 spices in your mental apartment whenever you want.

Visit your palace regularly

The memory palace technique isn’t a one-and-done memorization method. You’ll need to use a method called spaced repetition to solidify the locations of each memory in your mind, Oakley says. “Unless you have a naturally gifted brain for memory, you’ll need to retrieve the information in your memory palace several times over several days to ensure it sticks,” she says.

Try revisiting your mental location after one, then three, then five, and then seven days to allow yourself enough time to almost forget your target material during each interval. While you might have to check your written-down list a few times at first, you should eventually find that the wacky connections in question are secured solidly in your brain. Remembering your target information will now be as easy as recalling which location you left it in. A royal success.

The post A ‘memory palace’ is your secret tool for remembering information appeared first on Popular Science.

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The nonstop heat of the summer months are tough for wildlife. Unlike humans, wild animals can’t simply flip a switch and bask in air conditioned bliss. We’re not saying you should welcome your area’s natural inhabitants indoors during the warmest parts of the year, but there are still ways you can help them stay cool. All they need is some water, shade, and an occasional helping hand. 

Provide access to fresh water

The most persistent threat to wildlife during hot weather is dehydration. Like humans, most of the animals you’re likely to find in your yard or neighborhood need constant access to water in order to survive. You can help by making natural water sources easier to reach, or by providing your own.

If you happen to have a natural source of fresh water on your property, like a pond or stream, do your part to help wildlife access it by clearing debris away from the banks. You can do the same thing on land you don’t own, too, as long as you have permission to clean up there. Target plant matter such as dead branches and thorny foliage, as well as human litter like plastic bottles and food wrappers. This simple step will help all varieties of local fauna access much-needed water, whether they’re tiny chipmunks or huge deer.

[Related: How to stay safe around moose]

If there’s no natural fresh water to be found, you can play a vital role in wild animals’ well-being by putting water out for them to drink and bathe in. Here are some tips for hydrating a few common backyard critters to get you started.

Seeing wildlife moving or behaving unusually is a sign that something may be wrong. Birds sitting on the ground, nocturnal animals appearing during daytime, and any mammals lying still or “sunbathing” may be experiencing heat stroke or severe dehydration. Reptiles are the exception to this rule—turtles, snakes, and lizards often warm up in direct sunlight during the day, and shouldn’t be disturbed unless they are clearly injured or in a dangerous spot like a busy road.

If you see an animal that may need help, assess the situation from a safe distance. It may be OK to leave a dish of water nearby, but don’t get too close or attempt to handle one without expert advice. Contact your area’s wildlife rehabilitation center and describe the animal’s symptoms for tips on what to do next. If you don’t have one nearby, try your local animal control department. With a little vigilance, you can help wildlife stay safe and healthy during the hottest time of the year.

The post How to protect wildlife from extreme heat appeared first on Popular Science.

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Much has been written on how to craft an attractive terrarium—but mushrooms are often overlooked. Under the right conditions, funky fungi can be cultivated inside lush, mossy terrariums, adding a unique touch to your miniature habitat. 

Some terrarium purists consider ‘shrooms a sign of aesthetic failure. However, unexpected mushrooms can actually signify an ecosystem that’s working exactly the way it should: recycling dead or decaying plant matter and returning nutrients to the soil. Mushrooms may sprout out of your terrarium’s moss, emerge from rotting wood such as sticks or tree bark, or pop right out of the soil itself. And if you’re a toadstool enthusiast, you can even design your miniature environment specifically to foster mushroom growth. Just be sure you don’t touch any that you aren’t positive are safe, and definitely don’t eat them without expert guidance.

Growing mushrooms in a terrarium means starting with mycelium and optimizing the conditions for mushroom growth by adding water, warmth, and food (organic material). Keep in mind that mycelium can take months to produce mushrooms, especially if there’s no decaying plant matter to feast on. When mushrooms do sprout, they’ll only last for a couple of weeks before decaying—but the mycelium they grew from will stay in your mini ecosystem indefinitely, sending up new mushrooms several times a year.

Unfortunately, this cycle of decay and regrowth means it’s nearly impossible to curate a terrarium that features your favorite fungus year-round. The good news is that the warmth and moisture of a regular terrarium provides a great habitat for mushrooms, so you can enjoy its mossy charm even when there are no mushrooms in sight.

Water and wait

The easiest way to grow mushrooms in a terrarium is to construct it, water it, and wait—mushrooms may sprout naturally from the mycelium in your mini ecosystem’s soil. Fungal spores can also travel through the air, meaning you may be “planting” mushrooms in your terrarium without even knowing it.

When we think of compost, many of us imagine food scraps like stale bread, vegetable peels, and old fruit. However, these edible offcuts are more appealing to mold than to fungi because of the nitrogen they contain. Mycelium does best in materials naturally found outdoors, like leaf litter, lawn clippings, and dead wood. A clump of wet leaves and tree bark is a good way to start composting in your terrarium. And although animal manure is  commonly found in gardens and may even be in your compost pile, don’t attempt to grow mushrooms with it: the ones that appear may be poisonous. 

Source your ‘shrooms from nature (with caution)

If you know where to look, you can source your terrarium materials from nature. Your backyard may have the mycelium you need to start growing mushrooms, but you’ll need to be cautious and understand the law if you go searching in parks or nature preserves. Many protected natural spaces have rules about what you can take home, if anything, and some wild mushrooms are poisonous and shouldn’t be handled with your bare hands.

That said, organic materials from nature can help jumpstart the process. Soil from around the base of a tree, for instance, is a lot more likely to contain mycelium than bagged potting soil from the store, and a chunk of rotting wood from a fallen tree is an ideal substrate for natural mycelium growth. If you can break off a small piece without breaking the law or disturbing the ecosystem around it, add it to your terrarium and see if mushrooms begin to grow. Grabbing a full-bodied mushroom from outdoors and sticking it in your terrarium won’t work. The key is to get the mycelium into your ecosystem—the “fruit” alone will just wither away in a few days without a support system under the soil.

Again, use caution. Be smart. Taking a small, damp stick home that you grabbed off the forest floor? Probably fine. Uprooting a healthy tree to scrape that sweet, sweet mycelium off its roots? Not fine. Not cool. Also, more trouble than it’s worth! You can buy mycelium online with way less effort, and even eat the mushrooms it grows. In fact, that’s our final tip for encouraging mushroom growth at home.

Grow like a pro by spending some dough

It will still take a while for mushrooms to appear, but this method gives you the highest chance of seeing results. Store-bought mycelium is designed to be easy to grow, and is even available in different varieties depending on what types of mushrooms you’re hoping to see. With some water and patience, you may soon see chanterelles, shiitakes, porcinis, and more.

Terrariums are beautiful, but mushrooms are fleeting—and many varieties may just not be suited to the bright, sunny conditions that the rest of your little ecosystem needs to thrive. If you’re really eager to see mushrooms, grab the rest of that store-bought mycelium and put it in a dark, cool place. Read the packaging, too—your mycelium brick probably has instructions on how to coax forth delicious fungi. In the meantime, your terrarium can sit in the sun until its own mushrooms appear.

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From tiny northern saw-whets to the majestic great horned, owls are some of the most iconic birds you can hope to see in the wild. They’re also some of the most elusive: nocturnal and private, these raptors are wary of the human world and prefer secluded woodland areas to highly trafficked residential zones. But under the right conditions, it’s possible to increase your chances of glimpsing these magnificent birds. All you need are some simple supplies and a healthy dose of patience.

Understand the ground rules

We’re not trying to break any raptor-lovers’ hearts, but there are certain conditions that will never attract owls. If you live in an urban high-rise, a bustling suburb, or have a yard that’s more concrete than foliage, your property isn’t suitable for a feathered visitor. Similarly, you should forgo these tips if you live near a busy road, a construction site, or an industrial area where cars and other machinery are common: the last thing you want is to coax owls closer to places where they’ll be susceptible to collisions or injuries from human infrastructure.

[Related: How to help an injured bird]

The prime environment for attracting owls will have open, grassy expanses, as well as trees to perch in. Quiet suburbs and rural areas, especially those near forests or other patches of undeveloped land, are the best places to apply the following tips. If this doesn’t sound like your yard, don’t despair: scroll to the end of this article for advice on how to find wild owls near you.

Mimic nature

The best way to attract owls is to make your property as similar to their natural environment as possible. This means letting native plants like wild herbs, shrubs, and young trees sprout naturally. These features will also attract other types of native birds and wild animals, signaling to owls that your yard is a safe haven for wildlife. Consider adding a homemade birdbath or a bird feeder to your property to draw in these smaller visitors.

The sounds of nature are almost as important as the sights. Ensure your yard is a quiet, serene place by moving any busy or noisy hobbies elsewhere. This might mean limiting how often you mow your lawn, relocating your whiffle ball games, and keeping your pets leashed rather than letting them run free. It’s unlikely that low-key hobbies like gardening or grilling will prevent an owl from dropping by, but try to keep noise and commotion to a minimum.

Add a nest box

Owls normally find naturally occurring hideaways to preen, sleep, and build nests. Many relax in tree hollows, while others get more creative: some desert owls make their homes in cactuses, while burrowing owls dig their own shelters underground. You can make your yard more attractive to owls by providing a ready-made residence in the form of an owl nest box.

A nest box is a bit like a birdhouse without the emphasis on decorative elements. Rather than nailing up a mini cottage painted in bright colors, opt for a plain brown affair that blends in with the environment. Sturdy wooden construction, an entrance hole big enough to accommodate adult owls, and a ledge or textured “front porch” area to let birds perch outside the nest box are all important considerations. You can order these cozy wooden dwellings online, get one from a local artisan, or even build one yourself.

Once you find a suitable box, you’ll need to pick an ideal location. Most nest boxes are best secured firmly to the trunks of sturdy, mature trees with nails or screws. Use a ladder to position the nest box 10 to 15 feet up the trunk of a suitable tree—owls feel most comfortable high off the ground, away from other wildlife. You can also attach one to your barn or shed, provided it’s well off the ground and away from any highly trafficked areas. For best results, do this in the early spring, or just before your local owls’ nesting season.

Build a buffet

Owls are carnivorous hunters known for feasting on mice, voles, lemmings, and even squirrels. If these critters frequent your yard without any effort on your part, owls may already be inclined to stop by. But a comfortable home requires a steady supply of food, meaning you might have to tip the scales in owls’ favor by encouraging your rodent populations to flourish. 

Remove hazards

If you’re deliberately coaxing wildlife onto your property, you have an obligation to make it a safe and healthy habitat for them to live and thrive. That means no nasty chemicals on your lawn, in your garden, or anywhere on the outside of your building. Pesticides are designed to be highly toxic, and rodenticides are just as harmful: even if an owl doesn’t consume them directly, it’s likely to eat a rodent that did.

Beyond that, turn off your exterior lights at night to reduce confusion during hunting time, and encourage your neighbors to do the same. Try to switch off indoor lights after dark whenever possible to reduce the risk of window collisions. Finally, relocate sculptures with moving parts, precarious construction projects, and any heavy machinery—including your car—to keep them out of owls’ way.

How to find owls if you can’t attract them

Even if your property isn’t suited to attracting wild owls, there are still opportunities to catch a glimpse of them in your area. Your local parks and nature preserves are a great place to start—even Central Park in Manhattan hosts a handful of migrating owls every year, much to the excitement of local birders.

Consider connecting with your city or town’s birding community for tips on where to look. Many birders are cagey about owl sighting locations out of respect for the solitary birds’ privacy and safety, so you likely won’t get far by searching the web. But once your local experts clock you as a sincere owl enthusiast who can keep a secret, many will be willing to share their favorite lookout spots.

The post Transform your yard into an owl kingdom appeared first on Popular Science.

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In the depths of summer, it’s hard to imagine a world without electricity. We rely on it for so much—from much-needed air conditioning and refrigeration to all our favorite diversions. But the hottest months of the year can mean an uptick in electricity consumption as we use a variety of power-intensive appliances to keep our homes habitable. This can lead to a higher utility bill as well as a larger carbon footprint, depending on your electricity source.

Thankfully, there are ways to reduce your electricity usage during the summer without compromising on comfort. Use these tips and tricks to save some money, reduce the strain on your area’s electrical grid, and help the planet while you’re at it. 

[Related: How to build a home that stays cool without AC]

Isolate any heat you can

Turn off your oven and any unnecessary electronics that produce heat, like lamps with incandescent bulbs. This will help you use less power while also avoiding the warmth they can add to your living space. If you have a grill or cooking fire pit outside, use it, but if you must turn on the oven or stove, isolate its ambient heat by closing your kitchen off from the rest of your home. This can be as simple as closing some doors, setting up a privacy screen, or hanging a heavy blanket over any open areas. If you go for that last option, we recommend nailing the cloth up like you’re hanging a painting (the wood that forms the side of any opening should continue straight up to the ceiling)—tape can strip the paint off your walls.

Work smarter to save money

Many of us spend the workday tied to our electronics, whether we’re at home or in the office. To avoid using excess electricity, only charge up and run devices when you need to do so for the task at hand. Practice these tricks to stay productive and reduce your power usage this summer:

[Related: Making buildings energy efficient just got harder]

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Whether you’re hoping to decorate a cake, jazz up a salad, adorn a cocktail, or simply enjoy a snack from nature, edible flowers can add a touch of whimsy and natural beauty to your diet. 

It’s important to remember that not every flower is edible—some are poisonous, and even the ones that aren’t may be growing in suboptimal conditions. Avoid plucking edible blooms directly from nature unless you can be sure they aren’t tainted with germs from wildlife, pathogens from the water supply, or harmful chemicals like pesticides. When in doubt, source your culinary flowers from a trusted gardener or edible flower farm to ensure quality and cleanliness.

Marigolds

Many edible flowers can be eaten whole, but some are best disassembled to avoid the inedible sepal, pistil, and stamens—basically the base of the flower and all those funky bits in the center. Marigolds are one of these: simply separate the head from the stem and pluck off the bright petals. All varieties of marigold have edible petals, but they don’t all taste the same. Some varieties are lightly citrusy, while others have a mildly spicy kick. Still others don’t taste like much of anything and are best for aesthetic purposes rather than culinary ones. If you have access to multiple marigold varieties, consider trying them all to discover your favorites.

Use marigold petals to add color and subtle flavor to any sauce or savory pie, such as a quiche or vegetable tart. You can also roll a ball of goat cheese in these bright petals and place it atop a salad. Marigolds’ fluffy, tightly-packed petals set them apart from other garden favorites, but you can be even more certain you’ve found the right plant by looking for its distinctive fern-like leaves.

Borage

While a bit obscure, this hardy herbal plant lends itself well to a variety of culinary pursuits. It produces quarter-sized blue flowers that connoisseurs say taste a bit like cucumber. These flowers commonly end up in jellies and jams, but are a lovely addition to all sorts of dishes, from a fresh green soup to a light chimichurri for fish and poultry entrees. If you’re considering growing some yourself, don’t hesitate: this flowering herb requires almost no maintenance, will return to the garden every spring, and is a favorite of pollinating bees.

[Related: The best ways to preserve your flowers]

Identify borage by its star-shaped flowers and the prickly white fuzz coating its stems and buds. Look for flowers grouped in downward-facing clusters and wide green leaves with gently ruffled edges. Green alkanet can look similar to the untrained eye, but its flowers are purple with rounded petals and have thicker stems than borage. Forget-me-nots may also be mistaken for borage, but they lack its signature fuzz. Both these other flowers are technically also edible, but they don’t taste like much of anything.

Pansies

A favorite of edible flower enthusiasts, pansies come in a huge array of colors, from soft pastels to vibrant jewel tones. Stick them on a cake, garnish a salad, or pop them in your favorite cocktail—they’ll add an enticing hue wherever they end up. On their own, they have a mild “green” flavor a bit like lettuce, but they’re also a favorite of dessert lovers for their wide variety of colors and flat, round shape. You can easily preserve the fresh blooms by brushing them with an egg wash and sprinkling them with superfine granulated sugar (or regular granulated sugar if that’s all you have), then leaving them to dry completely for four to 24 hours. These candied pansies can make a stunning dessert garnish or a unique homemade gift.

Pansies have iconic flat faces in watercolor hues that make them hard to miss. The flowers bloom in the spring and early summer months on short, compact plants with dark green leaves. They’re a favorite of cool-weather gardeners, and you’ll often find them in public parks, window boxes, and decorative planters—although those aren’t the best places to browse for a snack.

Roses

Roses have been lauded throughout history for their aesthetic beauty, but they have a unique floral flavor in addition to show-stopping colors. This is another flower where you’ll want to stick to the petals, and be sure to rip off the white portion at the base of each petal to avoid its bitter taste. Rose petals can be chopped and blended with softened butter for a fancy teatime spread, dried and sprinkled on a latte for a cute treat, or infused into honeys, jams, jellies, and baked goods.

You probably know what a rose looks like, but it’s worthwhile to make sure you’ve correctly spotted one before chowing down. Look for a bell-shaped bloom with tightly rolled central petals and a stem covered in signature thorns to make sure you’ve found a rose. One of the most similar plants is the thorn-free ranunculus, which is poisonous when eaten fresh.

Tuberous begonias

If you can get your hands on some of these big, bright blooms, take advantage of their natural citrusy flavor. Pair the softball-sized flowers with sliced strawberries in a summery salad or perch one on top of a fruit smoothie for an edible decoration. You can also substitute the stems of tuberous begonias for rhubarb in pies and other baked goods due to their similar sour flavor.

[Related: How to keep your flower arrangements gorgeous for as long as possible]

Be sure to get your tuberous begonias from a reputable source—not all begonias are edible, and you don’t want to end up with the wrong variety on your plate by mistake. Tuberous begonias are large and fleshy, unlike some of their smaller cousins, but this is a flower you really shouldn’t try to identify by yourself: check the label or ask their grower directly. People with gout, kidney stones, or rheumatism should avoid even the edible ones: the flowers’ oxalic acid may interfere with the body’s ability to properly absorb nutrients.

Nasturtium

The flowers, buds, and leaves of nasturtium plants are all safe to eat, and they have a peppery bite that sets them apart from other edible blooms. Try adding the flowers to a salad or using them to decorate an appetizer. This plant is an annual, meaning it won’t grow back year after year—just another reason to take advantage of the flowers while they’re in bloom.

If the bright orange flowers with darker orange and red streaks in the centers don’t tip you off, nasturtium also has distinctive leaves. Round and delicate, these bright green saucers have veins that fan out from a small white center. You can often find these flowers and their leaves growing in clusters on thin, roaming stems.

Squash blossoms

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Summer’s right around the corner, but the heat is already on. From unrelenting sunshine to sizzling grills, feeling hot (and cooling down) are part of the daily grind now. PopSci is here to help you ease into the most scorching season with the latest science, gear, and smart DIY ideas. Welcome to Hot Month.

If you’re looking to bring some feathered friends to your yard in time for Mother’s Day, a homemade birdbath is the perfect weekend project to produce a unique, functional gift. Rather than just buying a concrete bowl from the store, consider building a birdbath from scratch with repurposed materials. A few household items are all you need to attract wild birds year-round.

No matter what inspiration you find online or where your imagination takes you, almost all birdbath designs boil down to some type of water basin atop some type of vertical base. By getting creative with these two main components, there’s no limit to what you can create.

Stats

• Time: 30 minutes (plus time for glue and paint to dry)
• Material cost: $15 unpainted, $35 painted
• Difficulty: medium

Materials

• Basin (more details below)
• Base (more details below)
• Waterproof outdoor glue
• (Optional) outdoor paint
• (Optional) waterproof sealant

Tools

• Paper
• Scissors
• Permanent marker (or some other writing implement)
• (Optional) sandpaper

Instructions

1. Choose a basin. Picking the right vessel to hold your birdbath’s water—and its visitors—is crucial to your project’s success. The good news is, a wide variety of everyday items can be used as birdbath basins. Crafty gardeners have fashioned birdbaths out of dinner plates, bundt pans, serving bowls, trash can lids, flower pots, buckets, an old sink, and more. 

While the possibilities are nearly endless, there are a few key qualities to keep in mind while searching for a suitable basin. Try to find a vessel with the following:

• A large circumference. This will allow multiple birds to bathe at once.
• A shallow depth. Your basin should only hold 1 to 2 inches of water to prevent small birds from drowning. You can also fill a deeper basin with rocks to create a shallow bathing area—just keep in mind that this will add weight and may make your birdbath top-heavy.
• A narrow lip around the rim. This important feature will give birds a place to perch and preen. 
• A suitable material. Your basin will hold water around the clock, so a porous material like wood won’t work. Avoid metal if you live somewhere sunny, as it can get too hot for birds’ delicate feet. Try to find a slightly rough material like weathered glass, ceramic, terra cotta, or concrete for your basin. The textures of these surfaces are easier for birds to grip. 

You can let the basic proportions of a standard backyard birdbath guide you, but don’t feel beholden to any exact size or shape. As long as your basin offers an area both large and shallow enough for a few small birds to relax, you can customize your DIY birdbath to suit your own yard, taste, and budget. We recommend a basin smaller than a kiddie pool and larger than a cereal bowl, but if you construct a birdbath outside these parameters, please send photos.

2. Choose a base. Once you’ve chosen a basin, it’s time to find a base to set it on. Technically, this part of the process is optional: quails, juncos, and some other birds prefer to drink and bathe in water at ground level. Still, most birdbaths elevate their basins 2 to 4 feet off the ground to make them easier for humans to see and harder for other wildlife to access. Once again, the characteristics of your birdbath base are largely up to you.

Propping up your birdbath can be as simple as placing the basin on a convenient stump, or as complex as building a homemade stand from scratch out of salvaged materials. Bases can be made from everyday outdoor items like flower pots, bricks, a stepladder, or tomato cages, or constructed from vintage finds like antique glassware, table legs, candlesticks, or dishes. 

[Related: How an old oven became a sink]

Anything that was originally built to prop up another object is a good bet for a birdbath base. Vintage lamps, decorative plant stands, and side tables all fall into this category: they’re sturdy, well-balanced, and can easily be modified to support your basin. Make sure your base isn’t overly top-heavy—if it is, you may want to attach it to a simple ground-level platform that can be weighed down with rocks or other hefty objects.

3. Find the center of both your basin and base. This step will help guide you when you attach these two parts together. Focusing on the very top of your base and the bottom of your basin, trace the shape of each component onto a piece of paper. Next, cut out the shape and fold the paper in quarters as precisely as you can. Cut off the very tip of the innermost folded corner and unfold the paper—there should be a tiny hole in the exact center. Place the paper back over each component and use a permanent marker to mark the center through the hole.

For uneven shapes, or narrow components like pipes or thin lamp bases, you’ll have to use your best judgment on where to attach the two halves of your birdbath. Try balancing your bowl on its base and tracing the outline of the smaller part onto the larger one—once you attach them, there’s no going back!

4. Glue the base and basin together. Mass-produced birdbaths often have internal support structures, like a pipe that links all the components or a metal skeleton sealed within concrete. But the vast majority of DIY birdbaths use a much simpler technique: a liberal amount of industrial-strength glue. 

Which type of glue you use will depend on the materials you’ve chosen for your birdbath, but make sure your glue is waterproof, weather-resistant, and approved for outdoor use. It’s also helpful to choose a glue that dries quickly, especially if you’ll have to hold your basin steady atop a thin base while the adhesive dries. 

[Related: Adam Savage’s definitive guide to every kind of glue]

If you’re attaching two smooth surfaces, rough up the contact areas first with some sandpaper to help the glue stick better. Press and hold the surfaces together for the recommended amount of time before letting the glue dry naturally. If your birdbath looks a little crooked, don’t worry—the ground is almost never completely flat, so your birdbath doesn’t need to be perfectly straight. Finally, make sure the glue has dried completely before putting the birdbath outside. 

5. (Optional) Paint your birdbath. This step isn’t strictly necessary, but it can help give your birdbath a cohesive look. Sand any excess paint or exterior glaze off your birdbath and wash away dirt and particles with soap and water. Once it’s dry, paint your entire masterpiece with any paint intended for outdoor use. If you’re applying spray paint, use thin, even coats, and only use it outdoors with proper face and eye protection.

If the dish of your basin is already waterproof, there’s no need to paint it—simply fill it with water and let the birds enjoy. If you want to paint it for aesthetic reasons, go over the paint layer with a waterproof sealant. Most clear weatherproofing glazes that are approved for outdoor use should be safe for birds to touch once they are completely dry. Don’t set out your birdbath until all paint, glaze, and glue has had ample time to cure and set.

6. Pick a location. The most important consideration when choosing a location for your birdbath is safety. Keep birds away from reflective glass windows and potential predators by positioning the bath at least a few yards away from your home. It’s also a good idea to choose a location near some foliage, giving birds a handy place to flee if they sense danger. That being said, try not to place your birdbath directly underneath a tree or feeder to keep debris and plant matter from falling into it. This will help keep the water clean. You should also clean your birdbath regularly to help prevent the spread of avian illnesses. 

7. (Optional) Add fun features. Show your backyard birds a good time by adding some of these extra-special features to your birdbath:

• Rocks or colored glass stones: If your basin is deeper than 1 or 2 inches, you can make it safer and more colorful by adding small rocks or glass pebbles to your birdbath. Take care not to add very small colored stones that birds could mistake for food.
• Landing perches: Birds feel more comfortable when they’re able to gauge the depth of a birdbath’s water. Let them get a close-up look by adding large stones, sturdy sticks, or tiny overturned clay pots for them to stand on.
• Fountains: Now we’re getting fancy. Electric or solar-powered fountains will get your birdbath water moving, making it far more appealing to birds than a stagnant pool. This movement will create a sparkling effect that will attract birds’ attention, as well as keep algae and mosquitoes at bay.
• Copper elements: Adding a small piece of copper to your birdbath’s water can help prevent algae and bacteria from proliferating, as long as the copper is 100 percent pure. Copper coins, pipe fittings, and jewelry all fit the bill. Just be sure not to use tiny objects that birds could choke on. 

8. Fill your birdbath with water and wait. It may take a few days for birds to discover your new birdbath. Don’t despair: they’re just getting used to a new fixture in your yard and will likely stop by for a splash soon. Top up your birdbath regularly so birds grow to trust it as a reliable source of fresh, clean water. If you still have no success attracting feathered visitors, try moving the birdbath to a different location or adding some of the features listed in Step 7.

How we did it

We built the birdbath featured in this article out of a $5 antique table lamp from a used furniture warehouse and a $4 ceramic serving bowl from a thrift shop. We removed the lighting fixtures from the lamp and sanded a small patch on the bottom of the bowl before finding its center. 

We tried to glue the bowl and base together with E6000 glue, but it wasn’t well-suited for this project due to its long drying time. We re-glued the components with two-part Gorilla Epoxy, which needs to be combined and mixed before use. Fifteen minutes after application, the epoxy was dry. Then, we filled the basin with water and set it out near a lilac bush for birds to enjoy.

The glazed ceramic bowl was already ideal for holding water, and the base looked fine as it was, so we opted not to paint this birdbath. If we had, we would have used Rustoleum 2X spray paint for its wide variety of colors and clear Gorilla Sealing Spray to protect the basin against water damage, both on the recommendation of a Home Depot employee who said these products would cause no harm to wildlife once dry. We’re now waiting patiently for the local chickadees, finches, and sparrows to give their new bathing spot a try.

The post Build a classy, easy birdbath with vintage finds appeared first on Popular Science.

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While you may associate salmonella with poultry products like raw eggs and chicken meat, humans can also catch this bacterial disease from wild birds. Such transmission is uncommon, but salmonella infection can cause nasty symptoms like diarrhea, fever, and stomach cramps, and may even lead to hospitalization.

Following a recent salmonella outbreak in the western US that may be linked to wild songbirds, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has recommended sanitizing, and in some cases removing, bird feeders and birdbaths to curtail its spread. Here are a few steps you can take to keep your outdoor spaces safe for birds and humans alike.

[Related: Here’s the real story behind Alfred Hitchcock’s ‘The Birds’]

Salmonellosis, an avian disease caused by salmonella, almost exclusively stems from locations with bird feeders where birds congregate, reports the California Department of Fish and Wildlife. It notes that the recent outbreak has predominantly involved small members of the finch family like pine siskins and goldfinches.

The other risk posed by feeders and birdbaths is their proximity to the human world. When a sick bird visits, it can leave behind germs that will infect the next human to clean, refill, or tend to the site. For this reason, the CDC recommends washing your hands right after you handle a bird feeder or birdbath. It’s also important to clean these spots regularly.

How to clean and sanitize your bird feeder

1. Pick an outdoor location to clean your feeder. If one isn’t available, use a laundry sink or a bathtub. Don’t use the sink in your kitchen or near where your food is prepared—doing so could risk cross-contamination.
2. Empty your feeder of all birdseed. If you suspect there may be an infection in your area, throw the seed away—don’t dump it on the ground where other birds could find and eat it.
3. Wash the feeder. Scrub it with soapy water and rinse to remove all dirt and particles.
4. Disinfect the feeder. Soak it for at least 10 minutes in a 10% bleach solution—that’s nine parts water and one part bleach.
5. Rinse the feeder thoroughly with water. Let it dry completely before refilling it with birdseed.
6. Wash your hands with soap and water. Repeat this process weekly, or when your feeder is visibly dirty.

How to clean and sanitize your birdbath

1. Empty the basin. Old water can be dumped on your grass, flowerbeds, or simply on the ground as long as it won’t form a stagnant pool that birds can bathe in.
2. Remove debris. Dirt, bird droppings, and any other large particles can be cleaned away with a rag or a hose.
3. Clean the birdbath. Scrub out any remaining dirt and algae using a 10% bleach solution. You can empty the resulting dirty water in an unused part of your yard.
4. Rinse the basin. Use a hose to rinse the birdbath with clean water until the smell of bleach has mostly disappeared.
5. Refill the birdbath after it has air-dried completely.
6. Wash your hands with soap and water. 

[Related: Bird songs got sexier during the COVID-19 shutdown]

If your area is experiencing an outbreak of avian-borne disease, it’s better to be safe than sorry. Reduce contact between wild birds and humans on your property by removing or covering feeders and birdbaths temporarily.

Salmonellosis can cause weakness, labored breathing, trouble flying, and even death in the wild birds it infects. Sick birds may sit on the ground for long periods of time, puff out their feathers, and show little interest in humans or other large animals approaching them. If you see a bird displaying any of these symptoms, or if you find a dead one, here’s what to do.

How to handle a sick or dead bird in your yard

The post Salmonella could be lurking at your bird feeders and baths. Here’s how to clean them. appeared first on Popular Science.

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