Wildfires are an annual occurrence along the West Coast, igniting anywhere from Alaska down to southern California. But both the intensity and length of fire season have grown in recent years, driven in part by the drought conditions and high temperatures of an ever-warming planet.

And even if you live nowhere near the Pacific, or anywhere else that’s burning, you can still feel the effects of wildfires hundreds of miles away: hazy conditions and air quality alerts have descended on the Midwest and reached as far as the East Coast. It may be the first time your local weather has suffered as a result of fires happening somewhere else—but it won’t be the last. That’s why it’s crucial that you understand when to worry about wildfire haze, and what you can do to protect yourself and your loved ones.

“Small particles in the air can travel hundreds of miles,” says Zab Mosenifar, medical director for the Women’s Guild Lung Institute at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. “While the immediate danger is within a 25-mile radius of a fire—depending on the winds—particles travel and float in the air for up to two weeks after the fire is out.”

These ultrafine particles of burnt organic matter are too small to see with the naked eye, but can still cause hazy conditions and lower the air quality far from the fire itself. To check the air quality in your area, enter your zip code, city, or state into the search bar on the front page of AirNow. This data-focused site is a partnership involving numerous federal, tribal, state, and local government agencies, and uses sensors around the country to provide accurate and up-to-date information about the cleanliness of your local air. The site also offers general recommendations for what to do if the air quality index (AQI) at your location is dangerously high, so make sure to follow them, as well as any other instructions from local authorities. 

“For the vast majority of people… it’s more annoying than life-threatening,” says Clayton Cowl, a pulmonologist and preventive medicine specialist at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota. “Simply walking outside and doing what we normally do, for the average person probably isn’t going to be a big deal.”

[Related: Living in the same city doesn’t mean breathing the same air]

This means that if you aren’t a member of a high-risk group, you don’t need to postpone going to the grocery store, walking your dog, and other day-to-day activities at the slightest sign of smog. The human body has a natural filtration system that protects our lungs from dust and debris every day. 

“We all have a little bit of nose hair, and there’s mucus in the upper airway that dust sticks to like a fly would to flypaper,” says Cowl. “The problem with the very small particles is that they can bypass those normal mechanisms and you tend to inhale those particular particles deeper into the lungs.”

The key, therefore, is avoiding strenuous outdoor activities and using a few common-sense tips to keep your exposure to particles low. This is especially important for members of vulnerable groups.

As the AirNow dial points farther to the right, into the red, purple, and maroon levels, even people who have a low risk of being affected might want to stay indoors. If the world looks hazy through your window, make sure you check AQI levels and stay up to date with the information and recommendations from local authorities before stepping outside.

The post What to do when wildfire smoke fills the air appeared first on Popular Science.

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Wishing somebody a happy birthday requires little effort on your part, but it immediately makes your friends and family feel appreciated and cared about.

But if your brain cannot handle yet another important date, your ever-loyal smartphone offers a host of ways to stay on top of birthdays and other special occasions. Just make sure you use at least one of these approaches to avoid missing someone’s big day.

[Related: How to set phone reminders for anything]

Snapchat will display a cake icon next to your contacts in the main chat list when it’s their birthday—swipe left from the camera screen to see it. You can also tap on a friend’s avatar to get to their profile page, and if it’s their big day, you’ll see an It’s Their Birthday! graphic. Unfortunately, you can’t look up birth dates in advance.

Other social networks are less helpful. Twitter will display people’s birth dates on their profile pages but only if they’ve provided the information. There’s also no list or notification you can use: to know if it’s somebody’s birthday, you’ll have to visit their page to find out. Instagram is even less helpful and doesn’t display birthdays at all, so you’re out of luck. Unless someone specifically puts their date of birth in their bio or uploads a ‘happy birthday to me’ post that you notice.

Of course, Google isn’t guessing here—this feature relies on the information provided by your contacts. If you want to add birthday info yourself, you can open a contact page, tap the pen icon (top right) and then tap Significant date. Enter the birth date and make sure it has a Birthday label underneath. You can also store dates such as anniversaries in the same way. On the main Highlights menu, the app may also prompt you to add birthdays to your contacts more easily. If you see the notification to Add birthdays, tap it and then tap the birthday cake icons you see next to each of your contacts. 

The listings in the iOS Contacts app also have a birthday field you can fill in. On a contact page, tap Edit and then tap add birthday to enter the date. The iOS Contacts app doesn’t remind you about birthdays, but the iOS Calendar app can, which brings us neatly to…

Google Calendar offers similar integration with Google Contacts. In Google Calendar, tap the three horizontal lines (top left) and make sure the Birthdays calendar is checked (tap Show more if you can’t see it). There’s no way to manage notifications for these events in Google Calendar, as these alerts are handled in Google Contacts.

There’s nothing to stop you from creating your own birthday calendars in the iOS or Android Calendar apps, which would give you a bit more control over formatting (like colors) and let you set different notifications for each birthday. But you’ll need to maintain them manually, which may involve a lot more work than you’re willing to input. The same goes for any other third-party calendar app that you might be using.

[Related: Little kids think birthday parties actually make you get older]

Over on Android, we like Birday, which is open source, as well as easy and completely free to use. You can enter birthday data manually or import it from Google Contacts, and the app can track everyone’s age, count down to specific birthdays, and show you all of your friends and family’s special days on a year planner as well. 

Countdown+ Widgets (for Android and iOS) puts the emphasis on counting down to birthdays or any other event you’re interested in. You can import data from the calendars on your phone or from Facebook, customize the countdowns in numerous ways, and see all upcoming events in a simple list. You’ll also be able to remove ads after paying a one-off fee of $2, which will also allow you to back up your data and get even more customization options.

The post How to make sure you never miss someone’s birthday appeared first on Popular Science.

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DO YOU HAVE a big tub of pre-workout powder sitting close by? Look at the label. How many ingredients do you recognize?

Protein used to be the “it factor” in fitness supplements. But these products, sometimes called “pre-workouts,” have tweaked their recipes in the past decade. “One new trend is the increasing caffeine content,” says Andrew Jagim, director of sports medicine research at Mayo Clinic Health System in Wisconsin. In 2019, he and two other experts analyzed the chemical contents of 100 widely available pre-workout powders, vitamin supplements, and drinks to understand how consuming them might affect the average exercising adult. While the breakdown hasn’t changed much in the past four years, Jagim thinks some labels are more transparent now. “Historically, companies have listed their ingredients as proprietary blends,” he explains. “From the consumer’s perspective, they didn’t know how much of the ingredients they were getting.”

In general, Jagim says it’s safe to take one serving of a pre-workout before hitting the gym. The bigger question is whether the supplements really up your stamina, strength, and total fitness game. Let’s take a look at some of the helpers.

Beta-alanine

This protein builder counters muscle fatigue and soreness, letting you exercise harder and longer. But you have to take the right amount to feel the effect. In their study, Jagim and his team found that most pre-workouts contain around 2 grams of beta-alanine per serving—half of the recommended daily dose for adults. 

One word of caution: Ingesting more than 4 grams, or even 2 to 3 grams for some people, of beta-alanine at a time could lead to a tingling effect known as paraesthesia. There have even been reports of gastrointestinal distress, dizziness, and symptoms similar to anxiety after taking it on an empty stomach. Taking a lower dose, splitting it throughout the day, or consuming a different form (like a pill instead of powder) might ease any bad reactions. 

Caffeine

As any coffee or Red Bull fiend knows, caffeine gets you into a hyperexcited state by raising your heart rate, respiration, and blood flow. In other words, it warms up your body before you pop a single jump squat. It also fuels you throughout your workout, metabolizing slowly as your blood moves from the digestive organs to the central nervous system and muscles. Caffeine’s energizing effects are mainly caused by its interactions with the nervous system. They’re strongest 30 to 60 minutes after consumption and subside after another hour or two.

Most pre-workouts contain 250 to 300 milligrams of caffeine—equivalent to one to two cups of coffee. That falls under the daily 400- to 600-milligram limit recommended by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). But if you’re getting the same stimulant from other sources—energy drinks, soda, lattes with extra espresso shots—you might go overboard. “If you have anxiety or underlying heart problems, it can complicate issues,” Jagim says. He also cautions against giving highly caffeinated pre-workouts, or any caffeine, to kids younger than 16, and against taking them in the evening in case they make it harder to fall asleep.

Creatine

This coveted ingredient contains three nonessential amino acids that are naturally found in the human body, fish, and red meat. A main fuel source for muscles, creatine has all kinds of positive health effects, many of which have been well studied, Jagim says. For starters, it helps prevent muscle cramps, repairs torn tissue, and builds mass after intense interval training and heavy lifting. 

Many pre-workout products fall short of athletes’ creatine needs. On average, Jagim and his team measured 2.1 grams of the muscle-making additive, compared to the minimum of 3 grams recommended per day through diet and supplements. So what else is in these mixes?

Dimethylamylamine

A chemical that’s probably not listed on your pre-workout could be in it anyway. Dimethylamylamine (DMAA) is like a supercharged version of caffeine: It comes from amphetamines, a potent class of drugs that can be misused and result in addiction. The stimulant was often added to fitness supplements until the FDA classified it as a controlled substance in 2013. But some companies still slip in small amounts to get an edge over competitors, Jagim says. You shouldn’t be afraid of accidental “doping”—reports of bad DMAA side effects from pre-workouts are rare. Just avoid products on the FDA’s warning list for health violations.

If you’re still worried about what’s in your pre-workout and how it will affect you, look up the ingredients on a website reviewed by medical experts like examine.com, read the supplement fact label, and check if the item has a third-party certification seal. Or follow Jagim’s DIY approach and mix together three to four items (creatine powder, Greek yogurt, soy protein, or even cold brew) that fit your body’s needs. A store-bought supplement will probably do more good than harm, but in the end, you might spend more than it’s worth.

Read more PopSci+ stories.

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Although the World Health Organization only recently declared the end of the mpox global emergency, the virus is not gone. Chicago health authorities, for one, have identified up to 31 cases of the disease formerly known as monkeypox since the beginning of April, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is raising awareness ahead of the summer. 

A full schedule of two doses of the Jynneos vaccine can be up to 89 percent effective, but the CDC urges high-risk communities to take extra precautions to avoid a health crisis like we had last summer. Understanding how the virus spreads and how to prevent infection is key to complementing the protection provided by vaccines.

It’s worth noting that mpox seldom requires hospitalization and is rarely lethal: The US reported 30,235 confirmed cases between May 2022 and March 2023, with 38 deaths, the majority of both among Black people. Last year, access to treatment was limited, but there’s no reason to believe that will be the case this year, especially in major cities, as the health system is currently better equipped to respond to new mpox surges. But prevention is still crucial as the skin lesions that are one of the most common symptoms of the virus can be extremely painful without proper medication. 

Matching last year’s domestic and international trends, the recent small surge in Chicago has mainly been concentrated within the community of gay, bisexual, and queer men who have sex with other men (GBMSM, in short), and their sexual network. Whether you identify as such or are currently at low risk of contracting the virus, you should know how mpox spreads and how to stay safe.  

“​​Let’s say you touch a lesion and the virus gets on your hand. Unless you have a break in the skin, you should be ok,” says Scott Roberts, assistant professor of infection prevention at Yale University’s School of Medicine. The problem is that we tend to touch our mouths, eyes, and faces throughout the day, which means you can infect yourself with viruses lingering on your digits, he explains. 

“The reason that we’re seeing the spread through sexual contact is not that it’s a sexually transmitted infection, but rather the close, prolonged contact in an intimate encounter, where you’re touching parts of the skin, kissing, sharing bodily fluids,” Roberts says. “All of that is a good scenario for a virus to spread.”

Several studies have found traces of the mpox virus in semen, but only one of them, published by Italian researchers in The Lancet Infectious Diseases, showed the virus in the sample could replicate and actually infect another person. Unfortunately, there still isn’t enough evidence either way, so we still don’t know if mpox can spread directly through the exchange of semen, feces, or vaginal fluids.

Keep in mind that skin-to-skin contact doesn’t mean you’ll get infected by shaking hands with someone who has mpox—you’d need a high viral load for that to happen. 

“It definitely requires a much longer time of close and prolonged contact if you don’t touch somebody’s lesions,” says Roberts.

But mpox is not airborne, and it doesn’t behave like COVID-19, where microscopic droplets can infect you if enough of them get into your nose and mouth. Researchers including those who worked on the Lancet study have said that the viral load in a mpox patient’s airways is nowhere near as high as the one from lesion secretions. That means transmission from respiratory fluids may be possible, but a lot less likely.

How to prevent mpox

As mentioned above, because the current and 2022 outbreaks have been mostly contained within the GBMSM community, authorities have given its members priority access to vaccines and treatment options. But even with that and greater availability of inoculations compared to last year, the CDC says only one in four people eligible to get the Jynneos shots actually have received them. 

It’s because of this low vaccination rate, aggravated by the fact that vaccines are not 100 percent effective, that even if you’ve received your two doses, you should still strive to reduce your own risk of contracting mpox as much as possible.

You should also keep in mind that there are a lot of ways to have sex, and some don’t require touching or even being in the same room with your partner. Take this as an opportunity to be creative and explore these options as sexual alternatives.

Anonymity is another problem. We know the thrill of having sex with strangers is, well, the “strangers” part. But it’s better to stay in the know when it comes to stopping the spread of a virus. Anonymous sex rarely gives people the chance to have honest conversations about their levels of mpox exposure, potential symptoms, and vaccination status. Talking to someone before tearing off their clothes will allow everyone involved to stay safer, make informed decisions, and clearly establish how much risk you’re comfortable with. 

And since you’re already having a conversation, don’t forget to exchange real names and contact information with potential partners. These include people you kiss, have penetrative sex with, and do everything in between. This will make it easier to get in touch if you end up with mpox symptoms in the future. 

And if you don’t trust yourself to break the spell of anonymity, try to avoid contexts where anonymous sex is most likely to happen, like sex clubs, sex parties, and any other contexts where on-site casual sex is common.

“Mpox is actually a pretty easy virus to kill,” Roberts says. “Alcohol wipes, soap and water, disinfectant, all of that really easily kills the virus.”

In general, you should regularly disinfect surfaces like kitchen counters, door knobs, and light switches, the CDC says. You should also wash your hands frequently with an alcohol-based sanitizer, or soap and water. If you’re not sure whether your cleaning products will do the trick, the Environmental Protection Agency has a list of approved disinfectants. 

The post What you can do to prevent the spread of mpox appeared first on Popular Science.

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Hikers and backpackers are like cats: prone to wander and will sleep anywhere that fits at least 85 percent of their body. They both also get very cranky when wet.

Fortunately, there are plenty of ways to enjoy all the perks of spending a rainy day on the trail while staying safe and dry. Just check park websites or call the local ranger station before you decide to have a rainy outdoor adventure, as some parks close trails that are susceptible to excessive damage when wet.

But not all rainy weather apparel is created equal. Skip the slicker—it may be supremely waterproof but has no ventilation, which will turn the inside of your outerwear into your own personal sauna. And you don’t want to do that, since the goal is to avoid all moisture, including that coming from your own body. Instead, opt for a breathable weatherproof jacket, which will likely have a combination of features such as a special membrane, zippered vents, and high-tech materials. This kind of garment will be more comfortable when you’re huffing and puffing up a mountain, and start to break a sweat. 

[Related: Why you can smell rain—even though it’s odorless]

Once you’ve found a jacket (and rain pants if you’re especially moisture-averse), check the waterproof rating of your outerwear. This number indicates how much water a square inch of material can take before it starts leaking. It will likely be somewhere between 10,000mm and 20,000mm—the higher the rating, the best chance of staying dry in a downpour.

If you don’t like fitted jackets or want something that will also cover your backpack, you can turn to the trusty rain poncho. They may not be stylish, and in windy conditions, they tend to be a nuisance, but they’ll definitely keep you dry. Cheap plastic varieties can be prone to tearing, so bring a small coil of duct tape, just in case you need to patch a hole on the fly.

Rochelle is a big fan of these accessories and finds them amazingly useful. “It’s a portable dry spot,” she proclaims, pointing out that when hiking in the rain, you’ll likely want to keep moving so you don’t feel cold, and umbrellas offer the option to rest in place while staying dry.

Protect your gear

On a day hike, you may be carrying a bag full of essentials that you’d prefer didn’t get waterlogged. If you’re backpacking, there’s more to be concerned about, like protecting dry layers and your sleep setup. 

Options for protecting your stuff from moisture vary. One solution is to use a rain cover, which you might already have as they come included with many backpacks. These accessories shield your belongings from the elements, helping keep water away not only from your bag’s interior contents but also from everything stuffed in exterior pockets.

However, rain covers are far from perfect. They can get snagged by branches and easily pulled off, not to mention long-lasting or heavy rain can easily make its way through them. The inevitable result is pooled water at the bottom of the cover dampening all your gear.

A sturdy pair of leather boots will keep your feet dry and warm for longer, but they might not be practical. If you’re expecting to cross creeks that are deeper than ankle-high or spend days in a row hiking in the rain, your feet are going to get wet no matter what and your chunky boots will never dry out. Lighter boots or shoes will get soaked through faster, but will also be the first to air dry once the rain stops. 

You can try keeping your feet dry by wearing plastic bags over your feet and inside your boots, but this technique is strictly a short-term approach. Don the bags while crossing large puddles and small creeks and remove them as soon as you’re safely on the other side. Keeping them in place for long periods of time will result very quickly in sweat-soaked socks.

Whether you go for thick leather boots or lighter shoes, make sure you choose footwear with a sticky rubber sole and deep tread for the best traction on slippery, muddy, or wet terrain. And don’t forget to always pack extra pairs of dry socks if you expect wet conditions.

A pair of trekking poles can be useful if you’re concerned with slipping and falling. Just remember to keep three points of contact on the ground at all times when traversing treacherous surfaces.

But Rochelle says it’s important to balance environmental protection with personal safety. If mud is too deep or there’s a serious risk of slipping and falling, try to find a durable surface to walk on nearby, like rocks or gravel. And if that’s not an option, there’s no shame in retreating. Ask yourself if you’re dealing with a hike you should reserve for a drier day, and consider either picking a new trail or heading home.

First, check your access points to the water. If there’s a chance you’ll slip before you get there, rethink your approach. Then, look at the texture and size of the rocks on the bottom. Fine gravel is easier to navigate than large stones, which could be a slip or trip hazard. To test the current, throw a stick in the water, and if it’s moving faster than you can walk alongside it on the bank, the current might be too fast. 

[Related: Watch bobcats, bears, and even birds use fallen logs as bridges]

Next, use a stick or trekking pole to measure water depth, and keep in mind that anything at or above your knee comes with a higher risk. Continue by scanning downstream to check for hazards like waterfalls, big rocks, and trees that could trap you underwater if you were to slip and fall. Finally, have a plan for where and how you will exit on the other side. If after assessing the situation you feel confident in your ability to cross without falling, do so with extreme caution.

It might seem like a lot of preparation, but whatever you do, don’t let a little rain keep you from hitting the trail. “It’s totally worth it,” Rochelle says. “You might find you love it.”

The post How to stay dry and safe while hiking in the rain appeared first on Popular Science.

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They started out as a great alternative to reduce plastic waste, and now thanks to social media, reusable water bottles have become a fashion accessory with a cult-following. But no matter how much you splurged on yours, you’re in for some bad news: it’s likely full of germs.

Bottle ‘o bacteria 

Different types of bacteria, mold, and fungi can make an appearance in your water bottle—and you’re the source of many of them. Charles Gerba, a microbiologist and professor of virology at the University of Arizona, says you can transfer bacteria from your mouth to your bottle every time you take a sip. This includes Staphylococcus aureus, for example, which can cause ailments ranging from skin infections to pneumonia. The same goes for viruses like the flu, mononucleosis, and type 1 herpes, some of which can carry over to your water bottle even if you don’t have symptoms. 

[Related: The germiest places you might not be cleaning]

The germs you transmit when you sip are generally harmless, Gerba says, but if your hands are dirty, you can easily contaminate your water bottle with bacteria like E. coli, which can cause gastrointestinal issues if you ingest too much of it. 

These germs are also the reason why it’s never a good idea to share water bottles. Gerba explains that your immune system is used to the microorganisms living in your mouth and throat, but any invaders might cause it to react and make you sick. Sticking to your own bottle will prevent you from catching or passing on diseases that spread through saliva, keeping you and others safe and healthy. 

Don’t forget about mold

But bacteria is not your only problem: your water bottle can also grow all types of mold. Stachybotrys chartarum, also known as black mold, is the most common, says Jennifer Nitrio, a certified mold inspector and owner of Mold Help for You. 

“This is because [black mold] loves moist, dark environments,” she explains. It also likes warmth, so conditions get very attractive to Stachybotrys when water bottles end up in hot cars or locker rooms.

Mold also needs food to thrive and your mouth’s bacteria, now relocated in your water bottle, offer the perfect feast, says Nitrio. To make things worse for you (and cozier for mold) these microorganisms love sugar, so filling up your bottle with sweet beverages will only increase their chances of growing. 

Finally, what your water bottle is made of also plays a part in mold growth, but it’s not as important as you’d think. Nitrio explains plastic tends to grow mold slightly faster than other materials, but “90 percent of the time mold occurs because of improper water bottle hygiene, which means it is just as likely to grow on glass as it is plastic or metal.”

Needless to say, ingesting even a small amount of black mold will ruin your hydration ritual, as moldy food or water just tastes bad. But depending on how sensitive you are, it could also lead to poisoning, which entails symptoms like body aches, headaches, and nosebleeds. 

Clean your water bottle often and thoroughly 

There is hope for anyone worried about a dirty water bottle and it’s simple—just wash it. Gerba recommends you clean yours every day or at least once a week. And don’t just simply rinse it out: It’s important to give it a proper wash. 

If your water bottle is dishwasher safe, Gerba says running it through a sanitizing cycle should kill all bacteria, but usually, a normal one should do the job just fine. Otherwise, investing in a specialized brush set can make cleaning your bottle easier by helping you get to any tough-to-reach spots. Don’t forget to use a pipe-cleaner brush (they’re usually included in these sets) to help give your straw or mouthpiece a proper clean. 

[Related: Your smartphone is gross. Learn how to clean it properly.]

Nitrio recommends getting rid of some germs first by filling your bottle with hot water and a tablespoon of white vinegar and letting it sit. Once you can safely and comfortably touch the outside of the bottle with your hands, carefully close the top and give it a good shake. After that, open the bottle, rinse it out, and use your brushes to give it a normal wash with soapy water. 

If you don’t have vinegar on hand, you can also use bleach diluted in water to quickly get rid of any germs that might be lurking. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends a solution of five tablespoons of bleach per gallon of water, and if you don’t feel like making that much, you can always scale down the recipe by diluting four teaspoons of bleach per quart of water. To clean your water bottle, spray the solution all over it, or pour it into a large bowl and submerge the bottle in it so that it floods every nook and cranny. Let it sit for a couple of minutes and finish things off by rinsing the bottle and washing it with water and soap. 

When you’re done with your wash, you can dry it off using a clean paper or dish towel. If you’re air drying, let your water bottle sit without the cap on to prevent the accumulation of extra moisture, as it can trigger mold growth. 

Keep in mind that as long as your emotional support water bottle is clean, you don’t have to worry about it not loving you back. 

The post You’re probably not washing your water bottle often enough appeared first on Popular Science.

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If you’ve bought shoes, torn into beef jerky, or taken certain medication recently, you have likely handled at least one tiny silica gel packet. After briefly wondering why your new backpack contained a squishy little warning-labeled pillow, you probably chucked it into the garbage with the rest of the packaging.

Yet those little packets are as useful as they are ubiquitous, and you can find plenty of uses for silica gel around your home. It’s better to give them a second, third, or fourth life instead of sending them directly to the landfill. 

Although silica beads are not gems, the porous mineral does come from the ground. Silica is harvested through a “straightforward” mining process using open pits or dredging, according to Robert Goodin, a mineral commodity specialist with the US Geological Survey’s National Minerals Information Center. He says this usually removes vegetation and disturbs the ground’s top layer, and adds that explosive charges will occasionally be used to break apart the rock.

[Related: Which expiration dates actually matter?]

“These little silica gel packets, they’re in everything, but [use in desiccation is] actually a very small percentage of what this industrial sand is used for,” Goodin explains. “It’s less than 1 percent of the eventual end use.” He estimates that over 60 percent of silica sand—similar to regular sand but with much more silica—goes to the oil and gas industry for fracking and other needs. Glass production uses up another roughly 10 percent.

“Recently, [the US has] been the top producer, a major exporter and self-sustaining in a lot of these end-uses for silica, so we have a strong silica—or industrial sand—mining industry” in this country,” Goodin says.

What happens if you eat silica gel?

Despite their ominous, all-caps warnings about consumption, silica gel packets are generally considered non-toxic. The real concern is the size of the beads—it’s pretty easy for a child to choke on the packet or the beads within it, although some beads are large enough for adults to choke on, too. Swallowing silica gel can also lead to dehydration, which could irritate your throat and nose, and cause stomach pains, vomiting, constipation, or nausea.

Even so, spending a lot of time up close with silica can lead to health problems. According to Goodin, industrial workers exposed to silica dust may develop respiratory illnesses if inhaled.

And Britta Baechler, senior manager of ocean plastics research at Ocean Conservancy, notes that some silica gel packets feature a color-changing moisture indication. These aren’t supposed to be used near food and contain a compound known as cobalt chloride, which several chemical manufacturers list as an irritant and a carcinogen.

“Overall it seems that when they do not contain cobalt chloride, silica gel packets are relatively safe to use,” Baechler says. Nevertheless, you should avoid reusing these packets for any food-adjacent uses, just in case.

How to use silica gel around your home

Even if you shouldn’t use silica gel packets around food, there are still plenty of ways to safely reuse the desiccant, but you’ll have to reactivate the packets first.

Paper-based heirlooms—think old books, Gramma’s wedding photo album or your children’s handmade holiday decorations—are also frequently threatened by insidious moisture, leaks, or humidity. Tuck some silica packets into your memory box and breathe a little easier.

Protect—or revive—electronics

You’ll need quite a few to be effective, but keeping silica gel packets packed away with cameras, film, smartphones, video tapes, laptops, and other water-sensitive electronics and accessories can keep them safe until subsequent use. Dropped your phone or tablet in the bath? Try using a slew of silica gel packets to adsorb the water and bring the device back from its watery doom.

Keep moisture-prone areas dry

Your bathroom, basement and attic, are all places that can accumulate moisture easily. Adding silica gel packets near areas that might fog up, like windows and mirrors, can help prevent that slightly-annoying or even damaging condensation and slow down the growth of mold.

[Related: The right way to wash your waterproof clothes]

Preserve unique, special-purpose, or expensive materials

Leather and sports gear might be fine in a bit of rain, but prolonged exposure to moisture can ruin, stain or mildew different specialty fabrics. And any boxes of seasonal clothing or items you only use once a year (think: holiday sweaters and decor) might get wet long before you open them up and realize it. Silica gel packets tucked into pockets and between layers of fabrics can adsorb water before anything is ruined. Other water-sensitive materials such as seed packets can benefit from nearby silica gel packs, and you can even speed up drying flowers with silica. 

What happens to silica beads in the environment?

For most silica gel packets, a single use is all they’re likely going to get. Still, the packets that encase the silica gel beads are a relatively understudied source of single-use plastic pollution, Baechler explains.

“By function, [silica gel packets are] a desiccant,” Baechler says. “So if these packets are being dumped into waterways, or even onto land, it can dry out whatever environment ends up in, which can be problematic.”

[Related: How to go zero-waste at the grocery store]

Additionally, silica works as an insecticide for indoor and outdoor uses in powdered form on “stored grain, other food, feed and ornamentals; in food handling areas; and on pets and their living/sleeping quarters,” according to a US Environmental Protection Agency fact sheet.

“That means it’s being applied in an environmental setting,” Baechler adds. “I would surmise that if silica is used in this way and released into the environment, especially in large quantities that could have some impacts in terms of water retention in ecosystems and, perhaps, impacts on [animal and plant life] as well.” 

For now, at least, the environmental effects of silica gel are uncertain, but we think it’s better to be safe than sorry.

This story has been updated. It was originally published on July 27, 2022.

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BEING SORE SUCKS. Anyone who’s exercised to an extent can probably complain about the stiffness, pains, or—worse—injuries the next day. But as annoying as the achiness gets, it’s a critical part of the recovery process. 

Under your skin, the all-important muscle fibers that push and pull bones to move you around tear slightly during a workout—a phenomenon called microtrauma. Combined with inflammation, these tiny ruptures may cause soreness, which your body alleviates by replacing the cells around the wound.

There are actually two kinds of muscular soreness that you feel after a workout, and they come from different sources. The microtrauma-based discomfort is known as DOMS, short for delayed-onset muscle soreness. You might feel it most between 24 and 48 hours after the workout—and for as long as three to five days. The other type, acute muscle pain, happens after you overwork your body. These pangs go away in about a day or two, just in time for the DOMS to peak. 

So are there surefire ways to get rid of your soreness? Not exactly. The problem is that to ease the aches, your body has to heal the microtears, which isn’t a process you can speed up. There is some good news, though: A solid post-workout ritual could have a placebo-like effect on your mind, blunting some of the pain you feel. And there could be other perks too.

For example, stretching does not lead to faster recovery, but it does make you more flexible and less prone to injury in the future, especially during high-intensity workouts. And while warm-ups don’t help with the healing process either, they do raise your heart rate, preparing you for the sudden jump in activity. 

Then there are the various salves, tools, and self-care schemes people try. A few studies show that proper use of compression gear could confer some benefits for blood flow and enzyme production. Some gymgoers pregame the pain with anti-inflammatory drugs like aspirin and ibuprofen, though they have no proven power against soreness. Elite swimmers might tolerate the bruises that come with cupping therapy—without any science to confirm the benefits of the practice. Even ice baths and far-infrared saunas (featuring high heat and low humidity) have minor, inconsistent results, according to researchers.

In general, getting a massage a day or two after a workout offers short-term relief for muscle tenderness. You will likely feel a little worse with a pair of hands or a percussive therapy device kneading into you, but as soon as it’s done, your pain will be more manageable for the next few hours. In certain circumstances, massages might even help reduce inflammation and DOMS.

There are three surefire things you can do, however, to soothe your soreness a bit. The first is to rest. Your body needs time to rebuild your muscle fibers, so getting a good night’s sleep and using the sore body parts less when you’re awake will help you recover faster. Weightlifters know this well and will work a different muscle group each session. If you’re a regular at the gym, commit to triceps one day and focus on a different group (biceps, maybe) the next.

The second is to make sure you’re eating well. Your body requires nutrients like proteins and carbohydrates to patch up your muscles, so enjoy a big bowl of pasta or a tall glass of chocolate milk a few hours after training. 

The third thing you can do is keep at it. DOMS hits harder when you try a new form of exercise because your body is not used to the strenuous activity. The first time will always be the most painful. But if you set a schedule and habit around the workouts you like best, it should hurt less after you crush all your reps. 

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Love it or hate it, sleeping naked hits different. Not only is it less laundry to wash, but taking off those pajamas can do wonders for your health. While you may feel self-conscious at first, the openness of resting in the nude can actually boost your confidence and help you look your best self. 

There’s no right or wrong way to get ready for bed—it’s all a matter of preference. And while nakedness won’t miraculously cure all your sleep problems, experts say there are some modest benefits to going au naturel.

1. Younger-looking skin 

James Walker, a medical advisor for the healthcare platform Welzo, says sleeping without clothes gives your skin an opportunity to breathe, allowing for better airflow. He explains that clothes, especially tight-fitting ones, can restrict blood circulation, making it harder for your skin to receive vitamins and minerals needed for collagen production. Certain materials also might add to your discomfort in bed. Aditya Kashyap Mishra, a sex educator and relationship expert for Lustyboy, says synthetic fibers like spandex and nylon trap moisture in your skin—the added heat can make it hard to fall asleep. Other synthetic fabrics and pajamas with dyed cotton may cause skin irritation and acne from the fabric rubbing against you.

[Related: 5 surprising beauty benefits of running]

Tossing and turning from wearing the wrong clothing can affect your quality of sleep and your skin. The body makes collagen during sleep, which is essential for supple and younger-looking skin. Research shows that getting less than the recommended seven hours of sleep for adults increases skin aging and slows down recovery from sun damage.

2. A cooldown for your body

As you might expect, sleeping with your skin exposed helps regulate your temperature at night, says Walker. The drop in body temperature can prevent overheating—a real concern in summer and in places where winter is virtually non-existent. Research shows that feeling extremely hot at night increases wakefulness. Even if you manage to land some shut-eye, it will likely be less restorative with shorter cycles of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. 

Feeling colder, on the other hand, can also help you fall asleep faster. Your body temperature is synced up with the light-dark cycles outside; it normally falls when the sun goes down. A lower body temperature from sleeping nude tells your biological clock it’s time to shut down.

3. Fewer fungal infections

Fungi and bacteria thrive in warm and damp areas like your nether regions. Mishra explains that trapped sweat from moisture-wicking clothing increases the risk of microorganisms building up, resulting in yeast infections and jock itch. Jock itch can also come from constant friction from clothes. Stripping down to nothing will allow more air circulation and keep your intimate parts from getting overheated.

4. Better emotional intimacy

Skin-to-skin contact between partners can strengthen your relationship. Research shows touching among consenting adults releases the “love hormone” called oxytocin. This chemical reduces stress and encourages openness and social bonding with others. One US marketing poll of more than 1,000 adults found that 57 percent of couples who regularly snoozed in the nude were happy in their relationship compared to 48 percent of pajama wearers. Getting used to baring it all in front of a partner can counteract self-consciousness of how you look in bed. Mishra says this openness is a huge stress reliever, and the added relaxation can help you sleep better.

What if you want to sleep in clothes?

If you’re still not convinced about sleeping naked, there are other ways to improve your slumber. Avoid tight or constricting apparel that would restrict your movement, irritate your skin, or otherwise cause discomfort. Walker recommends going to bed in loose-fitting and breathable fabrics like cotton or bamboo, or one simple layer like an oversized T-shirt and shorts to avoid overheating.

[Related: 11 ways to sleep better in unbearable heat]

There’s nothing wrong with slipping on a pair of socks before bed, Walker adds. Some people find it comforting and helpful in keeping their feet warm, especially during colder seasons. However, he warns against sleeping in socks that are too tight as they could restrict circulation. 

Whether you go to bed nude or in clothes, you should always remove your makeup and any heavy jewelry. Snoozing with makeup on can clog pores and lead to future breakouts. “It’s best to cleanse the face thoroughly before sleeping to allow the skin to breathe and regenerate,” advises Walker. Additionally, laying down in chunky necklaces, bangles, and other jewelry can be painful and might even leave abrasions on the skin.

“Ultimately, the key is to prioritize comfort and choose sleepwear that allows for optimal relaxation,” Walker says. “It’s always a good idea to listen to your body and make choices that help you feel comfortable and at ease during sleep.”

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But if you’re an animal lover determined to feed your local park’s residents, there are several healthy alternatives. Before you go stock up on snacks, though, always make sure you’re allowed to feed the critters in question—some areas’ rules are more lenient than others.

What to feed ducks (and other waterfowl)

The best advice we can give about feeding ducks (or other types of park fowl like swans and geese) is to imitate the types of food they naturally eat in the ponds and fields they call home. This means vegetables and nutritious grains work well, while processed “human” foods do not. Even though bread is typically made from grains, the breadmaking process renders it very filling with a relatively low amount of nutrients, two factors that can lead to malnourished ducks. Instead, try to stick with snacks that haven’t been highly processed.

For vegetables, the most important consideration is making sure that the bits and pieces you offer are small enough for waterfowl to handle. Ducks and their relatives aren’t great at chewing—while their bills help break down food, they don’t have teeth, at least in the traditional sense. Cut salad greens, vegetable peels, nuts, grapes, and other produce into small pieces before you toss them to these birds.

[Related: Why do ducks have orange feet?]

A bag of frozen mixed peas, corn niblets, and carrot pieces is one of the best options for waterfowl: these veggies are nutritious, affordable, and small enough for ducks to eat whole. Grains like oats, rice, and seeds make good waterfowl chow for the same reason. Even better, many of these little morsels will float on your local pond, keeping them easily accessible to ducks. Big chunks of food that sink to the bottom aren’t as useful.

If you’re looking to get fancy, you can also drop a couple more dollars on a bag of specially formulated waterfowl food. These pellets, available online or at your local pet store, are typically fed to pet birds and farm animals. These bite-size bits may not float on water, though, so test a few handfuls near the water’s edge before you start a feeding frenzy. This designer food may be best served up on the banks.

Other tips for feeding ducks

No matter how eager they are for a human-provided snack, your local park’s resident fowl are almost certainly not going to go hungry without you. Most ducks are perfectly capable of foraging for insects, plant life, and other nutrition sources on their own. That means you don’t need to feel bad if some of them miss out on the feast. In fact, overfeeding waterfowl can cause a host of problems, from teaching them to rely on human handouts to throwing off their natural nutritional balance. When in doubt, it’s better to stop feeding the birds sooner than you’d like than it is to feed them too much.

If you suspect a particular duck, goose, or swan may be unable to feed itself after you leave, it’s time to call in professional help. Waterfowl that live in parks are susceptible to a host of dangers from the human world, ranging from vehicle strikes to lead poisoning. Feeding them may be a temporary kindness, but it’s not a sustainable solution. If you see a bird having difficulty moving around or visibly in distress, contact your local wildlife specialists right away.

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It’s never too late to get better handwriting. We don’t mean calligraphy level, which would make your doctor’s office check-in forms look like royal decrees from the 1500s. We mean legible and consistent, regardless of whether you use print or cursive. 

Just like most aspects of life, you can improve your handwriting with practice. Repetition will help you gradually change your style, and you’ll eventually reach a point where letters flow naturally and beautifully from pen to paper. We can’t promise the words will make sense, but at least they’ll look pretty. 

Avoid thick or spiral notebooks and instead opt for one with a flexible binding that you can open flat. This will prevent the heavier side of your book from trying to pull the whole thing closed, and eliminate any wrist discomfort a thick spiral may create as you approach the end of each line. Thinner notebooks will also keep your hand from losing support as you write the final lines on a page. 

Next, find a paper layout angle that suits your writing. Don’t fall for the notion that the only correct setup is vertical, as that can force your hand and wrist to adopt an unnatural writing position, which could lead to pain and even injury. There’s absolutely no shame in positioning your sheet of paper or notebook at a 45-degree angle or even a totally horizontal alignment. The best way to find out what angle works for you is to start with your paper laid vertically and then rotate it to the left (if you’re right-handed) or the right (if you’re left-handed) until you’re comfortable. This is why having a spacious surface to write on matters, as you won’t want to knock down any desk trinkets while you play around with your paper. 

Take as much time as you need to ensure your setup is to your liking. You’ll find this will not only help you improve your handwriting but it will also be relaxing. You’re welcome. 

The best way to know if a pen is right for you is to try it. If you can, go to a stationery store and take your time sampling the pens there—write a couple words on the provided pads and see how each pen feels. Maybe buy two or three to keep testing at home. If you have no idea where to start, you can always give some fan favorites a test drive. 

Many people swear by the Pilot G-2, for example. It comes in several formats, but the tried-and-tested version has a built-in grip, is retractable, uses quick-drying gel ink, and comes in myriad colors. If you want to go with a classic, try BIC’s Cristal or Round Stic pens. You’ve probably written with these a million times before, and they’re a staple because of how comfortable and reliable they are. Some more ideas: Uniball’s Signo, Pentel’s RSVP, Sakura’s Pigma Micron, or any gel pen at Muji. These are all inexpensive writing tools with their own fan bases, so you should be able to find something that works among them. 

If you want to try your hand at fountain pens, start with something designed for beginners that—hopefully—is compatible with disposable ink cartridges, or even comes pre-loaded with ink. This will prevent you from having to buy a bottle of ink and a refillable cartridge, unless you’d really like to. Pilot’s Kakuno or Schneider’s Ray fountain pens are solid, inexpensive choices—they’re light and comfortable, and can prepare you to move on to more serious fountain pens in the future. 

When you write, do it at a normal pace (not too fast, not too slow) and mind your hold on the pen. If your nails are white from the force you’re exerting, your grip is too strong—relax your hand and try again. This is important because an excessively strong grip will lead to pain and discomfort, which can result in hand and wrist cramping, as well as injury. On top of that, pain will also affect the consistency of your handwriting and eventually deter you from putting pen to paper at all, rendering this whole process useless. 

Once you have a comfortable grip, check it every few minutes and correct it if you need to. If you’re having trouble controlling your pen, you can always change your tool or try a pen grip—one of those small rubber tubes that slip right onto your pen or pencil for better control. 

These are the elements you’ll need to focus on to improve your handwriting. No matter if you do cursive, print, or a combination of the two, you want a style that anybody can read clearly, is mostly the same across the page, and has letters that look more or less consistent. This doesn’t mean your handwriting should be perfect or resemble words on a screen (let alone calligraphy)—your handwriting is unique to you and you should embrace it as such. 

If there are aesthetic elements you want to change, or if you want to alter the way you write altogether, draw inspiration from others. A quick web search will turn up thousands of handwriting enthusiasts sharing their own pristine note pages. Take a look at them, find what you like (loose elements or entire styles), mimic it, and make it yours. 

A helpful way to practice is by making your exercises a part of your everyday life. You can do this by taking up a hobby like journaling or meditative writing. This will give you the opportunity to sit down for a couple of minutes each day and put your growing skills to good use. 

If you’re not into journaling, you can just set aside some time to practice every day. Find books, poems, and songs you like, and transcribe them. You can also write down your own train of thought if you can keep up with it. Your writing doesn’t have to be good, or even make sense—the point is to write, and as long as you’re putting words together, you’re getting some practice. 

On top of that, take every opportunity you have to write instead of typing. Keep notepads and pens around your desk and home, and pick them up to write reminders, and lists. If time is not an issue, forgo emails and opt for writing a letter or sending a postcard instead. It’s not only extra practice, but it’s a nice, old-fashioned thing to do and people love it.

A reminder: take your time and be patient. Speed will come once your hand learns the movements you’re teaching it. The more you write, the faster and more organically your lines will come. In the meantime, focus on form and consistency. From time to time, take a moment to analyze your handwriting to see how much you’ve progressed and what you still need to improve. Don’t forget about your grip, either, and check on it often to see if you need to loosen up. 

For the more independent learners, there’s also a lot of practicing material online, like worksheets and guides, that you can download at a cost or even for free. Some of them have slanted lines that can help you keep your angles consistent, and some of them have full instructions on the best ways to join letters and use spacing. 

It bears repeating: handwriting is not calligraphy, and it’s as unique to you as your fingerprints. It doesn’t have to be perfect, and it doesn’t have to look like someone else’s, so make embracing the chaos part of your process. 

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MOST PEOPLE have a certain mindset when it comes to working out: They tend to stick to a familiar plan and will push their bodies to the brink to achieve their fitness goals. But a healthy exercise routine has several building blocks—and a surprising number of them depend on what you do outside your regular sweat sessions. 

Warm-up

Activities that prepare you for your main fitness practice can serve two primary purposes: reducing injury and improving performance. Warm-ups hit those marks by increasing blood flow, ramping up muscle and core temperatures, and disrupting the temporary connective tissue bonds that can make you feel tight and sore. This leads to performance-enhancing benefits like faster muscle contraction, better reaction time, greater muscle strength, lower muscle resistance, and more oxygen for your cells. Warm-ups should last at least 5 minutes and top out at 15 minutes, depending on the length and difficulty of your routine: They usually include stretching and a slow increase in exertion.

Cardio

Frequent exercise that raises your heart rate to your target zone has been shown to benefit cardiac health (though there is some evidence that consistent physical effort at this level, like during marathon training, could have negative effects). It can decrease the risk of developing and dying from heart conditions. Not only that, but cardio workouts are also associated with lower blood pressure and the suppression of atherogenesis, the buildup of fatty plaque in blood vessels that can lead to coronary artery disease.

Strength training

Weightlifting isn’t just for people who want to get ripped: It has more significant benefits, particularly as you age. For one, targeted muscle building can reinforce joints like knees, ankles, and hips. That offers better support for your body, which helps lower the chances of falls and injuries. Contrary to popular belief, strength training also promotes greater mobility and flexibility; plus it boosts brain health and cognitive abilities like processing speed, memory, and executive functioning.

Hydration

You have to stay hydrated before, during, and after your workout. Exercise depletes the body’s fluids, particularly as you sweat. Dehydration degrades your performance and can also impair certain cognitive functions, including short-term memory and attention. Hydrating sometimes alleviates fatigue and increases reaction time. Overall, drinking water when you feel a need, rather than on a fixed schedule, can improve performance measures like duration and speed. It’s possible to drink too much water (a potentially fatal situation known as hyponatremia), so take small sips rather than chugging a bottle all at once.

Cooldown 

Just as you don’t want to dive straight into your routine, you don’t want to end it abruptly. Build in some time to slow your roll and bookend your warm-up. An active cooldown in which you do something similar to your workout but at a lower intensity, like a light jog after a long run, can solidify the results from exercising and prep you for your next routine. Bonuses include accelerated recovery of lactate in blood, partial prevention of immune system depression, and faster recovery of the cardio­vascular and respiratory systems.

Rest days

Taking days off between workouts is a crucial part of any fitness routine. Studies indicate that rest is necessary for the body to recover: When exercise and exertion sap your energy stores and fluids, relaxation gives you time to replenish them. You need at least 24 hours to fully replace the carbohydrates in your muscles, which are important for maintaining an adequate level of glycogen and stabilizing blood sugar. Rest days help prevent overtraining syndrome too. The illness mostly comes up in competitive runners and elite athletes, with symptoms like fatigue, sleep loss, and depression. 

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Play is crucial for the social, physical, and cognitive development of many species, and even though cats are largely solitary creatures, they still need plenty of it. But people who are new to felines might not know what playtime actually looks like for these furry fellows.

Learning how to keep your cat properly stimulated is an essential part of sharing your home with them, and science can provide a couple of clues on where to start. Everyone in your household will benefit from it.

Use toys like a string wand with a fake mouse three to four times a day in brief intervals, Siracusa says, and make sure to end every play session by letting your cat put something in their mouth. It will be a satisfying outcome for all their efforts. 

You can achieve a similar puzzle-solving effect by cutting out holes in an old plastic container, or a shoe or cardboard box, and filling it with toys. Cats can then reach in and figure out how to get their treats out through the openings. 

If you have a tablet, there are apps specially designed for cats that you can download in lieu of a physical toy. For example, Cat Fishing 2 (available for Android and iOS) will turn the screen on your device into a pond with one, two or three fish that will disappear as your cat taps them with their paws. There are many apps out there that do the same with mice and birds if the fish aren’t alluring enough.

Trying and failing to catch intangible prey, like fish in a digital pond or a bright red dot on the wall, can be furr-straiting for your kitten, so be sure to reward them with a few treats or some wet food on a spoon.

“Cats tend to go high because they are prey, and observing the world from a vantage point makes them feel safer,” Siracusa explains. The floor of a busy household also brings with it the possibility of being stepped on, so allowing cats some height can be comforting. A cat tree, a cheap bookshelf, or a similarly safe place to perch will do the job. 

And if even after getting them their own observation deck your chronic climber keeps breaking your expensive porcelain collectibles, don’t punish them. It sure must be annoying to say goodbye to every fragile belonging you own, but Siracusa warns against disciplining your cat for something that’s natural to them—it can lead to aggressive behavior toward you.

For a cat, an ideal environment is one where there’s always the option to engage socially and playfully, but where they can also abstain if they want to. Attempting to force a cat to play or preventing this type of activity when needed, may lead to adverse behavior, such as seclusion and aggression.

Contrary to popular belief, loose strings and yarn can also be dangerous to cats, especially kittens: they can get caught in it or potentially ingest it and asphyxiate. Keep yarn wrapped up tightly when using it as a cat toy, and if your furry buddy is on the younger side, always keep an eye on them during playtime.

But your cat is not the only one you should be careful with. Don’t use your body as a toy when playing with cats. It goes without saying that their sharp claws and teeth can scratch your skin, and those cuts mixed with cat saliva can lead to infection. 

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When you look up at the clouds, what do you see? A blob, a wisp, perhaps an elephant-shaped clump. It’s fun to get creative with the descriptions, but scientists have a formal classification system that can be useful to the everyday cloud watcher, too. We’ve made a field guide to types of clouds, so next time you’re enjoying a day outside, you can put your newfound knowledge of the skies to work.

What’s in clouds and their names?

Clouds are made up of droplets of water or tiny ice crystals floating in the planet’s atmosphere. They hold clues about the weather—like if it’s going to rain, snow, or worse—and the interesting physical and chemical cycles churning through the air.

“They are such an amazing feature of Earth that are simply fun to look at and study,” says Vanessa Maciel, an atmospheric scientist at the University of California, Los Angeles. Clouds are shaped by the many changing characteristics of the atmosphere: temperature, moisture, winds, and more. 

[Related: Make your own weather station with recycled materials]

Just like animal species, climate scientists have a system for naming clouds with genera, plus smaller subdivisions of species and varieties. These designations are based on their shape, appearance, and how high they are in the atmosphere. Each genus of clouds can be described as one of four main shapes, first categorized in 1803: cirro-form, cumulo-form, strato-form, and nimbo-form. Cirro-type clouds are the thin wisps; cumulo-type clouds are huge and fluffy; strato-type clouds are wide and flat layers; and nimbo-type clouds are the quintessential gray rain clouds. 

The astonishing diversity of clouds might seem overwhelming to a beginning cloud-gazer, but Maciel has advice on where to start. “A great way to narrow down the type of cloud you are seeing is to first try to estimate whether it is in the lower, middle, or high atmosphere,” she says.

High clouds

The highest clouds are the wispiest: cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus. They generally form above 20,000 feet, and typically indicate a coming change in the winds or weather. In certain regions of the tropics, they can even indicate that hurricanes are on the way. Generally, the air gets colder higher up in Earth’s atmosphere, so cirrus and friends are made up of ice crystals that are stretched and spread by the winds, giving them their thin, strand-like shapes.

Cirrus are the thinnest wisps, whereas cirrocumulus appear more like a thin, rippled white sheet. Cirrostratus are a more homogenous sheer veil. If you see a bright halo forming around the sun, that might be the cirrostratus. When cirrus clouds stack together like ridges, almost like a rack of ribs, the variety is called vertebratus.

Maciel’s favorite cloud looks a bit like a cirrus cloud, but is actually something quite different. Nacreous clouds, also known as mother-of-pearl or ice polar stratospheric clouds, are made of very cold ice. When the sun goes down they catch the light and reflect brilliant colors. “These colors occur only during sunrise and sunset, and are created by the interaction between sunlight and the cloud’s ice crystals, which are smaller than that of a standard ice cloud,” says Maciel. “They are also pretty rare as they only occur at high atmospheric altitudes and high latitudes.” Your best bet of seeing them is near the planet’s poles.

Mid-level clouds

In the middle of the atmosphere, we start to see more clumps: altostratus and altocumulus. They can be found 6,500 to 20,000 feet up, and tell very different tales when it comes to weather—altocumulus often mean you’ve got a pleasant day ahead, but altostratus indicate a long bout of rain or snow. 

Altostratus appear as large, flat sheets that aren’t quite thick enough to block out the sun entirely. Altocumulus, on the other hand, look like a horde of little cotton balls scattered in the sky. You’ve likely seen a few different species and varieties of altostratus and altocumulus before, particularly cavum. This variety is a continuous sheet of cloud with a big chunk missing. Stratiformis is another common species of altocumulus, where high clouds appear like a patchy, ridged sheet. Similarly, if there are layers of cloud that cover the sun entirely, they may be a variety known as opacus.

Low clouds

Many kinds of clouds start close to the ground—6,500 feet or below—and extend high into the atmosphere. These clouds are called nimbostratus, stratus, stratocumulus, cumulus, and cumulonimbus. These clouds are made up of water droplets from the surrounding warm air, creating their quintessential fluffy look.

Nimbostratus are the gray gloomy clouds that indicate rain. Stratus clouds also create gloomy days as they cover the sky in a low sheet of dingy white. Stratocumulus are somewhat similar to altocumulus, but they have a darker shadow and don’t appear quite as bright white as their higher altitude counterparts. 

Cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds are the behemoths of the bunch. Cumulus are huge white clouds reaching high up into the sky—the classic cotton balls. Cumulonimbus, on the other hand, are imposing and a bit foreboding, with a high, flat top and a promise of rain storms.

[Related on PopSci+: Cloudy with a chance of cooling the planet]

Low clouds come with some of the oddest and most interesting varieties and features. This is where tubes or vortexes appear from clouds, called tuba. They can also show—for a brief moment, anyway—a feature that looks like a set of perfect crashing waves, known as fluctus. Although the fluctus pattern looks almost too good to be true, it’s a somewhat common consequence of the physics of fluid motions. Stratocumulus clouds can also put on a cow costume: That is, they can grow little nubs on their undersides that almost look like udders, known as mamma. Cumulus clouds can even put on a hat, an accessory cloud called pileus that pops up at the top of one of these huge cloud formations.

What clouds to look for now

This summer, you can expect all the fair weather clouds, plus some of the weirder ones that pop up with summer storms like pileus. “Summer usually has clear skies, unlike the overcasts typical of winter,” adds Maciel. “But as summer also has a lot of convection due to the warm surface temperature, you can expect to see cumulus clouds, which are your iconic fluffy and bright white clouds.”

Clouds are just as complex as their classifications, and they’re changing not just with the seasons, but also with the climate. As Earth’s temperature warms, the varieties we see might change, too. “In spite of their ubiquity, there is still a lot about clouds that we don’t know,” says Maciel. For now, though, see how many you can spot—and enjoy the beautiful views provided by our planet’s magnificent atmosphere.

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Learning to ride a bike is a rite of passage in many families and communities, and that means the ability to teach someone how to ride a bike is an equally important skill. The first few tries can be scary for kids, but finding the right balance, and coordination will be easier if they have a confident teacher guiding them. That’s where you come in. 

Now, it’s not entirely natural to perch atop a pair of wheels, and falling is a near-certainty until a child has found their bike legs. Challenges are part of the process, but there are a number of ways that you can help the kid you’re teaching get comfortable on two wheels with limited trouble.

Balance bikes are simple. They’re just like small regular bikes, except without pedals. Riders propel themselves forward by pushing with their feet on the ground, essentially running with the bike beneath them. New riders can walk as slow as they want while seated on the bike, and as they get comfortable, start to move faster until they naturally lift their feet and glide farther and farther. Once they’ve mastered staying upright with their feet off the ground and can turn with a combination of the handlebars and leaning, it’s easy enough for them to hop up on a regular bike and learn the nuances of pedaling, starting, and stopping. There’s often no need for training wheels at all. One study found that children who started on a balance bike learned to ride a pedal bike around 4 years old on average, while those who started on a bike with training wheels didn’t learn until they were closer to 6. 

[Related: The best bikes for kids]

I started my kids on balance bikes when they were about 2 (they’re twins), and in a couple of weeks they were zooming and gliding faster than I could keep up with on walks around our neighborhood. When we introduced pedal bikes a few months before their fifth birthday, they got the hang of riding in two short driveway practice sessions and could easily start on their own without a push a few days later. They used training wheels for a total of 30 minutes, and that was only because we bought the bikes fully assembled and they refused to wait for me to take them off before hopping on.   

Even if your kids are older, or you’re trying to teach yourself as an adult, balance bikes are a great way to start. If you can’t find a larger balance bike or don’t want to buy one, Yip suggests removing the pedals from a regular bike and lowering the seat so the rider’s feet rest flat on the ground.

Create a fun, safe space for learning

Riding can be scary at first, so it’s important that kids start off in a comfortable environment. “Start in a flat, traffic-free area, such as a park or a quiet cul-de-sac, where your child can practice without distractions or dangers,” says Peter Ballin, a former international mountain bike racer, UCI Mountain Bike World Cup mechanic, and bicycle coach out of Morzine, France. “Ideally, start them on grass so it’s softer if they fall.” They shouldn’t have to worry about navigating around dangers or running out of space. Let them focus solely on riding.

It’s also important to remember that learning new skills is uncomfortable, so don’t push kids too hard, Yip says. After all, riding a bike should be fun. If the kids aren’t enjoying it, or are getting stressed from too much pressure, they’re going to have a harder time learning. “It’s better to let the child learn at their own pace,” he says. There’s no set amount of time that it should take. In Yip’s classes, students sometimes move from a balance bike to a pedal bike in a single day, but others might take weeks or months to get comfortable with the transition—and that’s OK.  

Ballin adds that as your child improves, giving them little challenges can be a fun way to keep them engaged and pushing themselves without undue pressure. He recommends setting up simple obstacle courses for your kid to navigate, or racing against a clock to keep them motivated and excited to learn.

Don’t forget to teach safe riding habits, too

Teaching a kid to ride a bike isn’t only about guiding them through balance and pedaling. They also have to learn about safety. First is the importance of wearing a helmet anytime they’re out riding. One analysis found that wearing a helmet could reduce the risk of head injuries by 45 percent, brain injuries by 33 percent, facial injuries by 27 percent, and deaths by 29 percent. I’ve seen the value of a helmet in action—one of my kids took a pretty bad balance bike spill and landed on the road on his face. The rim of the helmet saved him from no more than a split lip. Without the helmet, I’m sure it would have been a trip to the hospital instead. 

The other important safety lesson kids need to learn are the rules of the road, both Yip and Ballin say. Make sure to teach them that they should always ride with the flow of traffic rather than against, why we stop at intersections, what stop lights and road signs mean, and who has the right of way in what situations. Even if they’re years away from being old enough to ride alone, it’s good to drill that knowledge into their heads from the start.  

Classes are another option. In addition to providing people for your child to watch, sometimes kids need to learn from someone other than a parent or caretaker, particularly if you find yourselves getting frustrated by a lack of progress. Classes can also be a validating experience for kids who might be embarrassed that they don’t know how to ride yet, Yip says. They’ll see people of all ages who are also learning to ride, and realize that there’s no shame in not having mastered the skill yet.

And once your child is up and running on their bike, so to speak, biking groups and classes are a great way to expand their, and your, knowledge about cycling. Whether it’s getting more comfortable with street riding and racing, diving into the exciting world of BMX, or heading up into the hills for some mountain biking, there are a ton of ways to expand their skills and keep them in the saddle.

The post Pro tips for teaching a kid how to ride a bike appeared first on Popular Science.

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This article was originally featured on KFF Health News.

It was a regrettable mistake. But Kim Sylvester thought she was doing the right thing at the time.

Her 80-year-old mother, Harriet Burkel, had fallen at her home in Raleigh, North Carolina, fractured her pelvis, and gone to a rehabilitation center to recover. It was only days after the death of Burkel’s 82-year-old husband, who’d moved into a memory care facility three years before.

With growing distress, Sylvester had watched her mother, who had emphysema and peripheral artery disease, become increasingly frail and isolated. “I would say, ‘Can I help you?’ And my mother would say, ‘No, I can do this myself. I don’t need anything. I can handle it,’” Sylvester told me.

Now, Sylvester had a chance to get some more information. She let herself into her mother’s home and went through all the paperwork she could find. “It was a shambles — completely disorganized, bills everywhere,” she said. “It was clear things were out of control.”

Sylvester sprang into action, terminating her mother’s orders for anti-aging supplements, canceling two car warranty insurance policies (Burkel wasn’t driving at that point), ending a yearlong contract for knee injections with a chiropractor, and throwing out donation requests from dozens of organizations. When her mother found out, she was furious.

“I was trying to save my mother, but I became someone she couldn’t trust — the enemy. I really messed up,” Sylvester said.

Dealing with an older parent who stubbornly resists offers of help isn’t easy. But the solution isn’t to make an older person feel like you’re steamrolling them and taking over their affairs. What’s needed instead are respect, empathy, and appreciation of the older person’s autonomy.

“It’s hard when you see an older person making poor choices and decisions. But if that person is cognitively intact, you can’t force them to do what you think they should do,” said Anne Sansevero, president of the board of directors of the Aging Life Care Association, a national organization of care managers who work with older adults and their families. “They have a right to make choices for themselves.”

That doesn’t mean adult children concerned about an older parent should step aside or agree to everything the parent proposes. Rather, a different set of skills is needed.

Cheryl Woodson, an author and retired physician based in the Chicago area, learned this firsthand when her mother — whom Woodson described as a “very powerful” woman — developed mild cognitive impairment. She started getting lost while driving and would buy things she didn’t need then give them away.

Chastising her mother wasn’t going to work. “You can’t push people like my mother or try to take control,” Woodson told me. “You don’t tell them, ‘No, you’re wrong,’ because they changed your diapers and they’ll always be your mom.”

Instead, Woodson learned to appeal to her mother’s pride in being the family matriarch. “Whenever she got upset, I’d ask her, ‘Mother, what year was it that Aunt Terri got married?’ or ‘Mother, I don’t remember how to make macaroni. How much cheese do you put in?’ And she’d forget what she was worked up about and we’d just go on from there.”

Woodson, author of “To Survive Caregiving: A Daughter’s Experience, a Doctor’s Advice,” also learned to apply a “does it really matter to safety or health?” standard to her mother’s behavior. It helped Woodson let go of her sometimes unreasonable expectations. One example she related: “My mother used to shake hot sauce on pancakes. It would drive my brother nuts, but she was eating, and that was good.”

“You don’t want to rub their nose into their incapacity,” said Woodson, whose mother died in 2003.

Barry Jacobs, a clinical psychologist and family therapist, sounded similar themes in describing a psychiatrist in his late 70s who didn’t like to bend to authority. After his wife died, the older man stopped shaving and changing his clothes regularly. Though he had diabetes, he didn’t want to see a physician and instead prescribed medicine for himself. Even after several strokes compromised his vision, he insisted on driving.

Jacobs’ take: “You don’t want to go toe-to-toe with someone like this, because you will lose. They’re almost daring you to tell them what to do so they can show you they won’t follow your advice.”

What’s the alternative? “I would employ empathy and appeal to this person’s pride as a basis for handling adversity or change,” Jacobs said. “I might say something along the lines of, ‘I know you don’t want to stop driving and that this will be very painful for you. But I know you have faced difficult, painful changes before and you’ll find your way through this.’”

“You’re appealing to their ideal self rather than treating them as if they don’t have the right to make their own decisions anymore,” he explained. In the older psychiatrist’s case, conflict with his four children was constant, but he eventually stopped driving.

Another strategy that can be useful: “Show up, but do it in a way that’s face-saving,” Jacobs said. Instead of asking your father if you can check in on him, “Go to his house and say, ‘The kids really wanted to see you. I hope you don’t mind.’ Or, ‘We made too much food. I hope you don’t mind my bringing it over.’ Or, ‘I wanted to stop by. I hope you can give me some advice about this issue that’s on my mind.’”

This psychiatrist didn’t have any cognitive problems, though he wasn’t as sharp as he used to be. But encroaching cognitive impairment often colors difficult family interactions.

If you think this might be a factor with your parent, instead of trying to persuade them to accept more help at home, try to get them medically evaluated, said Leslie Kernisan, author of “When Your Aging Parent Needs Help: A Geriatrician’s Step-by-Step Guide to Memory Loss, Resistance, Safety Worries, and More.”

“Decreased brain function can affect an older adult’s insight and judgment and ability to understand the risks of certain actions or situations, while also making people suspicious and defensive,” she noted.

This doesn’t mean you should give up on talking to an older parent with mild cognitive impairment or early-stage dementia, however. “You always want to give the older adult a chance to weigh in and talk about what’s important to them and their feelings and concerns,” Kernisan said.

“If you frame your suggestions as a way of helping your parent achieve a goal they’ve said was important, they tend to be much more receptive to it,” she said.

A turning point for Sylvester and her mother came when the older woman, who developed dementia, went to a nursing home at the end of 2021. Her mother, who at first didn’t realize the move was permanent, was furious, and Sylvester waited two months before visiting. When she finally walked into Burkel’s room, bearing a Valentine’s Day wreath, Burkel hugged her and said, “I’m so glad to see you,” before pulling away. “But I’m so mad at my other daughter.”

Sylvester, who doesn’t have a sister, responded, “I know, Mom. She meant well, but she didn’t handle things properly.” She learned the value of what she calls a “therapeutic fiblet” from Kernisan, who ran a family caregiver group Sylvester attended between 2019 and 2021.

After that visit, Sylvester saw her mother often, and all was well between the two women up until Burkel’s death. “If something was upsetting my mother, I would just go, ‘Interesting,’ or, ‘That’s a thought.’ You have to give yourself time to remember this is not the person you used to know and create the person you need to be your parent, who’s changed so much.”

KFF Health News is a national newsroom that produces in-depth journalism about health issues and is one of the core operating programs at KFF—an independent source of health policy research, polling, and journalism. Learn more about KFF.

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THE INTERNET is vast, and we all have our own ideas about how we want to interact with it: Some livestream their every move, while others keep their daily activities to themselves. This would be perfectly fine if we all lived on our own isolated virtual islands, but we most definitely don’t.

When we share something about ourselves online, we’re also revealing details about those around us—just ask the victims of the Cambridge Analytica scandal, or the incredibly private people who’ve had their real identities revealed by TikTok sleuths. It’s beyond time we started looking at online privacy not as a personal decision, but as a collective issue.

To keep this conversation going, the Opt Out has created a code of conduct everyone could abide by. Of course, we can’t actually control what you do online, but we can help you understand that your actions on the internet have offline consequences, often for people other than you. 

So read these rules, take what applies to your life, and share it with your friends. The more people think about how everyone’s data and personal information is connected via the web, the more attainable privacy will be for all of us. 

1. Consent is king 

Consent is crucial to respecting people’s boundaries. Before you share a photo, a video, a personal story, or anything that depicts or describes someone else, ask them if they’re comfortable with you posting it. 

This includes images in which they’re featured prominently, as well as those where they’re visible only in the background, so be careful when you pan your camera—you might be unwittingly outing a secret relationship people have been speculating about for months. But it’s not only about images: You should also ask for permission when sharing written posts that include a person’s name or details that might identify them. You’ll want to be especially careful with information people might use to contact the person mentioned in your post, like their email address, phone number, location, and place of employment. You don’t want to inadvertently help stalkers get closer to their victims.  

[Related on PopSci+: When you should and shouldn’t accept a website’s cookies]

Content involving children is particularly sensitive. If you’re not the parent or guardian, make sure you ask the person who is before you hit publish. Even if they agree, consider hiding the kids’ faces as much as possible. 

Finally, just don’t post about someone who’s intoxicated, asleep, unconscious, or unable to provide clear consent. In fact, don’t take any pictures or videos of them at all—that’s just creepy.

2. Think carefully about filming or recording random people on the street

Listen, we agree with you: It’s not OK to be mean to people. And as much as you might enjoy the occasional Karen video, you should know that filming people like that is also not OK.

There can be truly good intentions behind such footage, and videos of rude people have probably made some viewers reconsider how they treat others. But once a video is online, you lose control over it. TikTok users have built followings by finding anyone they believe deserves comeuppance and calling their employer to get them fired or reprimanded. Others go even further and dox them, resulting in disproportionate consequences for them and their loved ones, including stalking, harassment, and even assault. Social media rarely makes the distinction between a truly awful person and someone who’s just making a huge mistake. 

That said, there are exceptions. Sometimes whipping out your phone and hitting record could help bring justice to a victim of assault, a hit-and-run, or even murder. Use your judgment to gauge whether you’re in an extreme situation like that and stop to think about the best way you can help—it may be filming at your own personal risk, but it may also be calling 911 or attracting the attention of other bystanders. 

And if you choose to hit that red square on your screen, you’ll have to figure out what to do with the video once you have it. In the great majority of cases, you shouldn’t publish it to social media. The harm you cause when the video leaves your control may be magnitudes greater than whatever clout, following, or emotional boost you gained by posting it. The rare exceptions include when you want to help someone but can’t contact them because they were arrested or removed in an ambulance. Even then, you may want to take some time to see if you can track them down and hand the material over personally.

Keep in mind that even in a court of law, your footage will take on a life of its own once it leaves your hands. Despite your best intentions, your video may not have the effect or result you intended it to.  

3. Don’t share one-to-one messages

As a general rule, treat all texts, photos, and videos you get through one-on-one chats and private message groups with the same care an international spy treats confidential orders from their handler. The people sending those messages meant for you alone to see them, so you shouldn’t send or show them to anybody else. The best example of this is nudes: If you get one, you can save or delete it, but that’s all.

4. Share contact information only when it’s consensual or public

A lot of people have their contact information on websites or their social media accounts. For example, you can email a PopSci writer by clicking the letter icon in their bio at the bottom of a story. This allows readers to send us comments and questions.

But that doesn’t mean other contact information is also public. If you need to disclose someone’s contact information, share only what’s publicly available on their official channels. If they have none listed, always ask them before you share their contact information: Tell them what you plan on sharing and with whom, and proceed only once they say they’re OK with it.  

5. Avoid revealing more information than you need to 

Sometimes we share more information than we think we’re sharing. Without realizing it, your long-awaited unboxing might have given all your followers your home address, and an innocent photo with your colleagues taken during lunch might have revealed your place of employment just because one person forgot to take off their badge.  

This is bad enough when it comes to your own information, let alone when it involves others. So be careful with what you share and look out for details about yourself and the people around you that reveal more than you’d like. 

Be careful with pictures featuring packing labels, official documents, license plates, and boarding passes—if you must share them, blur or cover sensitive information. Don’t forget the background—you’d be amazed at how much you can learn about someone by pausing a video and peeking at their corkboard. You should also take a good look at screenshots before posting, as they may include location data or even a rogue notification you didn’t notice popped up at just the wrong time. When taking photos near windows or outside, pay attention to landmarks, street signs, and anything else that might make your location evident. If you want to go the extra mile, consider erasing the metadata from image files before posting or sharing them online.

Finally, mind the words you use and avoid those that describe a direct affiliation with someone. Going back to that lunch with your colleagues, a sweet post about how much you like them might reveal a lot more than your appreciation for them. Just calling them colleagues reveals everyone’s place of employment (remember that one who didn’t take off their badge?) and if you mention how happy they’ve all made you for the past three years, viewers now have an approximate period of employment. It might not be a lot of information, but it accumulates with every post. 

6. It’s OK not to share your passwords with your partner. It’s also OK if you do. 

You have the right to privacy, and you don’t owe your partner unlimited access to your accounts. Lots of couples share their credentials for the sake of transparency and practicality, but that’s not necessarily a sign of a good and healthy relationship.

[Related on PopSci+: Stop choosing bad passwords, already]

Whether you share your passwords and passcodes with your significant other is your decision and yours alone. If you feel comfortable doing it and think it might make the relationship better, go for it. Just know that you should be able to keep your own space and say no if your partner asks you to open that door.

7. You’re the only one responsible for setting your boundaries

You may have someone in your life who’s very much online—the one who takes a picture of everything and posts multiple updates on social media throughout the day. So the next time you go out with this person and they whip out their phone to take a group picture, don’t just hide from the lens—take some time to have a conversation about what you’re OK with when it comes to being featured in someone else’s online posts. 

They may not understand or agree with your stance at first, and you might have to have the same conversation more than once. But you cannot expect to be comfortable going out with them if they don’t know what you want. Setting boundaries will make it easier for your friend to respect your needs and for you to enforce them. 

8.  Post about what you’re doing but not whom you’re with 

We understand if you don’t feel like having a conversation about online privacy as your food is making its way to your table. It’s a bit boring and certainly not the reason you and your friends got together. So if you haven’t had a conversation about expectations and boundaries when it comes to social presence, you should feel free to post about whatever you’re doing—just as long as you don’t disclose whom you are with.  

The idea is to include only you, the one person definitely providing consent to appear on social media. If someone else also consents, you may include them as well, but be mindful of those who opt out—don’t include them in group photos, and don’t tag or mention them. Be careful to leave out any identifying details, such as tattoos, cars, or anything that might hint at whom you’re out and about with.

9. No consent, no tag

Some people may be comfortable with appearing in your posts but not with you including a link to their social media account or accounts. Again, just ask them what they feel comfortable with. 

This rule also applies to other situations like contests, promotions, friends’ posts, and even using hashtags. Most social media platforms group hashtags and generally make identically tagged content easily accessible to people who may or may not be directly connected to us. For someone who wants to keep to themselves, this can be an unwanted reservoir of information about them.

10. Consent can be given and consent can be taken away

Your friend’s priorities regarding privacy may have changed since the last time you saw them. Even if they frequently post to Instagram and you think they’ll have no problem with you sharing a photo, don’t assume, and always ask them before you post. 

[Related: Everything you need to cure your smartphone addiction]

Tell them what you plan to write as a caption, if you’re planning to mention them, and make them feel comfortable by showing them the picture or post before hitting publish. Give them veto power and options.

And if you’re going to make assumptions about how someone feels about popping up on your timeline, it’s always a good idea to err on the side of caution. Assume the person beside you is private and doesn’t want anything about them online, until you learn otherwise. 

Read more PopSci+ stories.

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TO MAINTAIN a healthy level of physical fitness, everyone should commit to at least 30 minutes of moderate aerobic exercise or strength training a day. That’s easier said than done. With running errands, working a desk job, and fulfilling family obligations, the modern lifestyle does not leave much time for regular exercise. If you do prioritize working out, you might still be neglecting key muscle groups that support posture, movement, and overall health. Keep reading for a list of the most ignored ones, exercises to strengthen them, and the reasons you might need more variety in your routine. 

Healthy fitness goals

Before you start switching up your workouts, Christopher Geiser, an exercise science professor, physical therapist, and trainer at Marquette University, has a few important reminders.

First, “If you’re having trouble, don’t wait too long to get help,” he warns. Physical therapists and trainers can design a regimen specific to your needs. Everybody’s built a little differently, and unique personal histories make it difficult to give general advice. Working out various areas of the body with different types of activities is a surefire way to improve health. Remember to start off slow and careful if you haven’t exercised in a while—too much too soon might backfire on your muscles. 

Second, it’s important to know the difference between exercising for overall health and exercising for performance. “If you wanna be healthy, then you’re trying to get as variable activity with a nice even distribution of the loading across different areas as you can,” Geiser says. 

In contrast, “If you’re trying to run the Boston Marathon, you’ve got a really specific something that you’re working on and [your exercise regimen] is going to focus on that,” he explains. “And it isn’t always the most healthy for you.”

In other words, don’t sacrifice your well-being for better performance. “You want a balance across all of the conditioning exercises that you’re doing,” Geiser says. “And that variability across your system is probably what’s gonna give you the most bang for your buck healthwise.”

Target muscle area no. 1: Rotator cuffs

The rotator cuff is a group of four muscles and their connected tendons that attach the shoulder blade to the upper arm, stabilizing the shoulder and allowing 360-degree movement. Strengthening the area can prevent shoulder injuries, some of which can lead to permanent loss of function. 

If you already have shoulder pain or a rotator cuff injury, however, you could exacerbate it by exercising those muscles. See a medical professional for treatment instead.

Recommended exercises:

• Doorway stretches
• Reverse flies with dumbbells
• Wall angels 

Target muscle area no. 2: Abdominal core and back

In addition to helping you avoid accidents from, say, moving furniture, having a strong core boosts posture, balance, and movement. Each abdominal muscle has to work in harmony to control your back and pelvis, although “you don’t necessarily need them to do a lot of your everyday activities,” Geiser says. “But when you do need them, they’re not always in shape and ready to go.” 

Recommended exercises:

• Planks
• Bridges
• Deadlifts

Target muscle area no. 3: Neck flexors

These deep muscle groups rest in the front of the neck and are responsible for holding its position, contributing to posture. “We abuse the flexors when we stare at computer screens with our head forward all the time,” Geiser says. “They are notoriously weak because we haven’t built them up.” 

If you’re experiencing neck pain after staring down at a phone or laptop for a long period, it might be worth it to train these muscles. And at the same time, remind yourself to straighten your posture while doom-scrolling on the couch or working at a desk.

Recommended exercises:

• Supine neck retractions
• Active assisted neck flexions
• Supine cervical flexions

Target muscle area no. 4: Glutes

Though they get a lot of attention, the muscles underlying your butt are often improperly exercised. Strengthening your glutes helps with proper body alignment, movement, and athletic edge. Weak glutes can cause other areas of the body, such as the lower back or knees, to overcompensate when you’re walking, running, or climbing stairs. A stronger set also corrects posture and spinal alignment, reducing the risk of back pain and injuries.  

Recommended exercises:

• Squats
• Lunges
• Bridges

Target muscle area no. 5: Tendons

Most casual gymgoers don’t think of flexing these parts. Tendons aren’t muscles: They’re connective tissue that attaches muscles to bones, controlling movement of the skeleton. While they’re strong and flexible, injuries can occur from overuse, repetitive strain, or aging. Tendon-specific training can improve joint health, reduce pain and stiffness, and promote speed and agility. Use two different types of exercises to strengthen them—prolonged weight holds and quick, fast contractions—but not in the same workout. Vary your routine daily to keep from overloading these crucial parts, and be sure to take at least one day off from working out each week.

Recommended exercises:

• Eccentric movements
• Isometric movements
• Plyometric movements

Read more PopSci+ stories.

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If you’re reading this, you’ve either encountered several pages claiming they know exactly how to remove sticker residue, or this is your first one. Either way, we don’t think you’ll have to look further. 

There are a lot of options for getting sticker residue off of surfaces, but all of them fall under one of three types of approaches: mechanical, chemical, or thermal. Understanding how each of these works will provide you with the best chance at vanquishing your sticky enemy.

A warning before we begin: there’s no one type of adhesive you’ll find behind a sticker, so results may vary. Also, all of the following methods have caveats, and you may risk damaging the surface underneath the sticker. Use your judgment to determine the best approach in your specific case, and always do a small test in an inconspicuous area to make sure you’re not damaging the underlying material.

You might be tempted to use your nails, but we advise against it, as they might break or get pulled back, and you definitely don’t want that. You also shouldn’t use a tool made out of metal, like a sharp kitchen knife. Not only is it dangerous, but you could damage the surface under the sticker.

[Related: The five smells Americans hate most (and how to get rid of them)]

Instead, opt for a less abrasive tool like a dull plastic knife or a hard plastic spatula. If your sticker is paper, a rubber eraser can be incredibly useful. And before you go to town with it, try your scraper in a small, inconspicuous area. Start gently and use incremental force to see if there’s any damage to the surface beneath. The moment you notice you’re scratching more than you’d like, stop and try another approach.

Scratching is a good idea if you’re trying to get sticker residue off glass, metal, or another hard, sturdy surface. But continue to be careful, as you always risk removing way more than adhesive gunk: paint, enamel, or even a functional coating like Teflon may go with it. 

This approach is usually a great place to start, but it often won’t be enough to complete the job—especially if you reach a point where you’re not able to push that stickiness away. 

To use oil to remove sticker residue, choose one of the substances mentioned above and soak the surface in it, if possible. Peanut butter and mayonnaise have the added benefit of being able to hold their shape, so a dollop of either will be able to stay in place for longer, giving you more control over the affected area. If you don’t have any of these foods at home, you can also use WD-40. It’s not an oil, but the product specializes in water displacement (that’s what the “WD” is for!), so it’ll dissolve water-repellent adhesives. If gravity is working against you, use a rag or sponge to dab some oil on the sticker residue until it’s saturated. Let it sit for a couple of minutes, then use a clean rag, paper towel, or sponge with some water and dish soap to rub the residue off. The detergent will trap the fatty gunk, and the area will become squeaky clean as you rinse. 

Oils work better on non-porous surfaces because there’s nothing to absorb them, and you should absolutely not use them if you want to get sticker residue off clothes—they will definitely leave a stain. 

A word of warning though: alcohol (no matter its concentration) and acetone are powerful solvents and can be corrosive, especially on plastics and treated woods. There’s a reason specialists don’t recommend using alcohol to clean your gadgets’ screens, and if acetone can help remove an ever-resistant gel manicure, you can be sure it’ll remove a whole lot of other things, too. Finally, be careful when removing stickers from electronics, as rubbing alcohol has water in it. 

If you want to make sure you won’t destroy the surface you’ll be working on, make sure you do a patch test in an inconspicuous place. Apply the liquid you’re using with a cotton swab and let it sit for 15 to 20 minutes. Look at the surface and touch it with your fingers to make sure there’s no noticeable damage. Keep in mind there can always be damage you can’t see or feel, so if you’re dealing with a delicate material or something that might be expensive to fix, it’s better to abstain.  

But the fact that vinegar is natural doesn’t mean there are no caveats. Acetic acid is perfectly capable of damaging surfaces, so avoid using it on cast iron, waxed wood, aluminum, stoneware, or marble. That being said, if you’re working with ceramic or glass surfaces, white vinegar may be all you need to say goodbye to sticker gunk.

Vinegar is also the best way to remove sticker residue from clothes and other textiles: Saturate the area and let it sit for a few minutes, then use a toothbrush or a scraping tool to get rid of the loose adhesive. Repeat the process as necessary. If that doesn’t work, you can also try this technique with nail polish remover. Don’t use acetone, though: this strong chemical won’t just stain your clothes, it might burn a hole through them, depending on the fabric they’re made of. Some nail polish removers can stain and bleach fabrics, but it’ll depend on which one you use and the type of textile you’re dealing with. To be safe, do a patch test to make sure the solution is not worse than the problem. 

When it comes to removing sticker residue, you can use temperature to your favor by submerging or carefully exposing the material to boiled water for a few minutes. Protect your hands to prevent burning them, remove the item from the water, and use the scratchy side of a sponge with some dish soap to remove the remnants. Repeat the process if necessary. 

You can also use a hair dryer: Set it to high, keep it 2 inches away, and aim it directly at the affected area for 30 seconds. Turn off the appliance and carefully try removing the remaining gunk—it’ll be hot. If you can safely touch it, use your fingers, or grab a scraping tool if it won’t damage the underlying surface. If the sticker residue won’t budge or if there’s still some left, repeat the process. 

[Related: Use citric acid to clean your dishwasher and other gross household items]

As with all the approaches mentioned above, heat has its caveats, too. For example, if you’re removing sticker residue from a metal surface, make sure to protect yourself and handle the item carefully, as it might get dangerously hot during the process. If you’re lifting adhesive gunk from glass or ceramics, make sure they’re heat-resistant, as pouring hot water on them might break them. Needless to say, hot water is not the best approach when dealing with electronics, but then again, neither is dry heat. Normally, hair dryers shouldn’t produce enough heat at a 2-inch distance to damage hard plastic surfaces, but that will depend on which one you have. To be on the safe side, keep an eye on your work and stop immediately if you see any lifting, warping, or bubbling.

The post How to use science to remove sticker residue appeared first on Popular Science.

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The most irrigated crop in the US isn’t a particularly tasty one. Nationwide, lawn grass takes up a total area bigger than the size of Georgia, and requires more than 300 gallons of watering per household a day. “These turf grasses have really short roots, so they require nearly a constant input of water,” says Becky Barak, a conservation scientist at the Chicago Botanic Garden and leader of the Rethinking Lawns Project.

The traditional American lawn, which often holds non-native species from Africa, Asia, and Europe, can be great for kids and dogs to run around on. But there are tons of native plantings that decrease water and pesticide use, reduce time and energy spent on mowing, absorb stormwater, and provide real habitat for wildlife. Not to mention, they make an incredible backdrop in the process. “Some native grasses can be mowed to look more like traditional turf grasses,” Barak says. “But then there are others that are beautiful and can add so much visual appeal and a totally different look.”

[Related: What to consider before ripping out your lawn]

When it comes to choosing types of grass, there are thousands of choices. “They can be all different colors of the rainbow,” Barak says. That might sound overwhelming, but don’t worry—you can narrow down the list by browsing local native nurseries and regional university guides. (Remember to check the soil type in your yard and find plants that match.) Once you have some options that work for your space, no matter how tiny, you’ll be well on your way to creating the native landscape of your dreams. Here are nine beloved varieties to get you started.

Short grasses

Buffalo grass (Bouteloua dactyloides)

• Native range: Central US
• Height: 3 to 10 inches
• Light: full sun
• Water use: low to medium

If you’re looking for a native grass that still keeps the lawn feel, look no further than buffalo grass. Named after the American bison that once grazed all over the Great Plains, this drought-tolerant turf grass is a popular choice for lawns for its sod-forming abilities. You can mow it infrequently or never if you prefer the slightly taller look. Although buffalo grass can survive without irrigation, it may lose some of its color in periods of drought and dormancy. Mix the seeds with other low-growing options for sustained greenery, or consider using a buffalo grass cultivar that’s bred for more consistent color.

Curly mesquite grass (Hilaria belangeri)

• Native range: Southwestern US
• Height: 4 to 12 inches
• Light: full sun
• Water use: low

Another popular turf grass for drought tolerance, this species is the perfect choice for desert and desert-like environments. It’s considered to be one of the best lawn options out of native grasses in the US, though its range is limited to Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. Curly mesquite grass can grow in a variety of well-drained soils but works best in clay loam.

Pennsylvania sedge (Carex pensylvanica)

• Native range: Eastern and Midwestern US
• Height: 6 to 12 inches
• Light: part to full shade
• Water use: low to medium

Although Pennsylvania sedge isn’t technically a grass, its grass-like appearance makes it a great choice for homeowners looking to make their yard more native without losing the lush carpeted look. The plant offers good ground cover, spreads well, and deters deer from grazing. In the fall, this delicate, windswept-looking sedge turns from vibrant green to tan.

Medium grasses

Purple lovegrass (Eragrostis spectabilis)

• Native range: along the East Coast from Maine to Florida, west to Arizona
• Height: 8 to 18 inches
• Light: full sun
• Water use: low

Purple lovegrass, one of Barak’s favorites, adds the perfect pop of color to your lawn. The heat-tolerant plant really starts to shine in August, when it forms an inflorescence of purple-red flowers that seemingly float on the grass like a cloud of color. Though it can be damaged by heavy foot traffic, the grass stays relatively short, only needs to be mowed a few times throughout the year, and is deer-resistant.

[Related: This lawn-mowing robot can save part of your yard for pollinators]

“Hatchita” blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis)

• Native range: Western and Central US
• Height: 8 to 20 inches
• Light: full sun
• Water use: low to medium

Along with buffalo grass and curly mesquite grass, this type of grass completes the trifecta of popular native turf choices in the US, but is even more drought tolerant than the other two members of the big three. It’s also both cold and heat tolerant, can grow in most soils except overly wet ones, and hosts different kinds of skipper butterflies during their breeding season. In the summer, the plant displays an inflorescence of purple flowers; in fall, it turns beautiful hues like orange and red. For fuller coverage, consider combining blue grama with buffalo grass and various native wildflowers in your yard.

Muhly grass (Muhlenbergia capillaris)

• Native range: Southeastern US and the East Coast
• Height: 2 to 3 feet
• Light: full sun
• Water use: low to medium

Planting muhly grass is like setting off living fireworks on your lawn. Each fall, it blooms with feathery pink inflorescences In winter, the grass fades into a rich tan. Beyond that, it retains a gorgeous dark-green color. The plant is easy to grow and germinate and is highly deer resistant.

Prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis)

• Native range: Great Plains
• Height: 2 to 3 feet
• Light: full sun
• Water use: low to medium

Another one of Barak’s favorites, prairie dropseed’s flowing green clumps make it the perfect accent or border grass—but that’s not the only fun part. When it begins to pop around June, the grass produces small pink and brown flowers that smell like coriander, licorice, or popcorn. It maintains its shape outside of the warmer seasons, even when blanketed by snow. This slow-growing type of grass is also a great choice if you’re looking to make your yard more pollinator-friendly, as they provide nesting materials for native bees.

Tall grasses

Little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium)

• Native range: everywhere in the US except the West Coast
• Height: 2 to 7 feet
• Light: full sun
• Water use: low to medium

Despite its name, this drought-resistant grass is rather tall, making it a great choice to add dimension to a yard or garden. Little bluestem also boasts, you guessed it, a beautiful blue hue in summer before turning copper in the fall. Loved by homeowners (including Barak) and animals alike, this grass attracts birds and butterflies and provides nesting materials for native bees. On the flip side, you might catch a few deer visiting your new bluestem buffet.

[Related: How to build a butterfly watering area]

Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum)

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Best photoelectric		First Alert SA511CN2-3ST		SEE IT	This smoke detector two-pack from First Alert packs a one-two punch.
Best ionization		First Alert 9120B Smoke Detector		SEE IT	First Alert’s 9120B Smoke Detector brings quick protection to your home.
Best for smoke and carbon monoxide		Kidde Smoke & Carbon Monoxide		SEE IT	Kidde’s combo smoke alarm also protects against carbon monoxide.

According to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), around two-thirds of home fire deaths happen in spaces without a smoke detector. It takes minutes for a fire to fill your home with thick black smoke. The critical warning they provide can mean the difference between life and death. If your detectors are broken or very old, you should take the time to replace them. Luckily, even the best smoke detectors are affordable and easy to install.

• Best photoelectric: First Alert SA511 CN2-3ST
• Best ionization: First Alert 9120B Smoke Detector
• Best for smoke and carbon monoxide detector: Kidde Smoke & Carbon Monoxide
• Best battery-powered: First Alert PR710 Slim Smoke Alarm
• Best smart: Google Nest Protect
• Best budget: Kidde Smoke Detector (i12060)

How we chose the best smoke detectors

I’ve been renting an apartment with my wife (and dog) for nearly 10 years and, during that time, I replaced our old smoke detector with something new. I regularly test the detector to ensure it’s in working order, and I also monitor the condition of our major appliances, wall heater, and fireplace for potential fire risk. These are just a few small steps necessary in a more comprehensive fire safety plan, which also includes a fire extinguisher and escape route.

When I’m not obsessing over my family’s safety, I’m writing about gadgets and gear for publications like Popular Science, CNN Underscored, and TechnoBuffalo. To make these selections, I consulted fire safety guides from health and safety organizations, including NFPA.org, Ready.gov, and RedCross.org. I also reviewed PopSci’s previous coverage of the best practices for fire safety and consulted expert reviews.

The best smoke detectors: Reviews & Recommendations

Smoke detectors are extremely important for every home. If you haven’t replaced yours in the past decade, buying a new set is time. The best detectors are affordable, reliable, and easy to install. More importantly, they’ll provide you and your family with fire protection and peace of mind.

Best photoelectric: First Alert SA511CN2-3ST

FIRST ALERT

SEE IT

Why it made the cut: The First Alert SA511CN2-3ST packs powerful interconnectivity and voice alerts to let you know when there’s a fire.

Specs

• Type: Battery-powered (AA x 2)
• Sensor: Photoelectronic
• Interconnectivity: Yes

Pros

• Interconnectivity
• Simple setup
• Voice alert

Cons

• Limited number of location presets

The First Alert SA511CN2-3ST hits all the basic marks we look for in a smoke detector. This UL-Listed photoelectric model features interconnectivity, so you can connect up to 18 smoke alarms across your home. You can also assign it with one of 11 pre-set home locations, so its voice alert can tell you where the smoke is coming from.

Since it is designed to work as part of a larger set, we’re recommending a two-pack of detectors to make it a little more affordable if you decide to replace a full set of smoke detectors. That said, you can always get an individual model as well.

Best ionization smoke detector: First Alert 9120B Smoke Detector

FIRST ALERT

SEE IT

Why it made the cut: The First Alert 9210B Smoke Detector supports interconnectivity, an easily accessible test/mute button, and a 9-volt backup battery system.

Specs

• Type: Hardwired (battery backup; 9-volt)
• Sensor: Ionization
• Interconnectivity: Yes

Pros

• Battery backup
• Interconnectivity
• Easily accessible test/mute button

Cons

• Hardwired means more difficult installation

The First Alert 9120B Smoke Detector is a hardwired ionization unit that features a single test/mute button and a 9-volt battery backup system. It can also act as part of an interconnected, multi-unit alarm system of up to 12 First Alert smoke detectors, so you have more comprehensive coverage in your home. The 9120B also features a dust cover to keep particles from getting in, a mounting bracket lock for tamper resistance, and smart technology designed to reduce false and “nuisance” alarms. 

Best for smoke and carbon monoxide: Kidde Smoke & Carbon Monoxide Detector

Kidde

SEE IT

Why it made the cut: If you don’t already own a carbon monoxide detector, Kidde’s combination smoke/CO alarm has you covered.

Specs

• Type: Battery-powered (9-volt)
• Sensor: Photoelectric
• Interconnectivity: No

Pros

• Also offers a carbon monoxide detector
• Voice alerts
• Easy battery replacement

Cons

• No interconnectivity

Kidde’s combination smoke and carbon monoxide alarm is an excellent option if you need to install both smoke and carbon monoxide detectors. The battery-powered combination alarm constantly monitors your home for both smoke and gas, providing specific voice alerts if danger is present. (It also calls out “low battery” when it’s time to replace its 9-volt power source.) Kidde’s combination alarm also features a convenient hush/test button and a battery compartment on the front, making it easy to perform an annual battery change.

Best battery-powered: First Alert PR710 Slim Smoke Alarm

FIRST ALERT

SEE IT

Why it made the cut: With a slim profile and long-lasting battery, the First Alert PR710 Slim is a great way to protect your home.

Specs

• Type: Battery-powered (lithium-ion)
• Sensor: Photoelectric
• Interconnectivity: No

Pros

• Long-lasting battery
• Very little maintenance
• Slim profile

Cons

• No interconnectivity

If your home is too old for a hardwired smoke alarm, but you don’t want to ever change a battery, the First Alert PR710 Slim is a solid photoelectric smoke detector with a sealed lithium-ion battery guaranteed to last 10 years. Its thin, low-profile design is no-frills—just a single test/mute button, and that’s it. Unlike many of our other picks, it uses a classic siren, rather than voice alerts. It also cannot sync with other alarms. All in all, it’s a great option for apartments and other small spaces where you just need one smoke alarm, and you’d prefer to buy a new smoke detector every 10 years than replace a set of batteries every few months.

Best smart: Google Nest Protect

Google

SEE IT

Why it made the cut: The Nest Protect by Google provides a multitude of smart features in addition to smoke and CO detection.

Specs

• Type: Battery-powered or hardwired
• Sensor: Split-spectrum
• Interconnectivity: Yes

Pros

• Smartphone notifications
• Supports battery-powered and hardwired setups
• Split-spectrum sensor
• Advanced interconnectivity

Cons

• Expensive

The Google Nest Protect offers traditional smoke and carbon monoxide monitoring, with several convenient smart features. Chief among them, you receive a direct alert through the Nest smartphone when it detects danger. You can also conveniently mute the alarm through that alert. The Protect features a specialized photoelectric “Split-Spectrum” sensor, which uses two LED lights to detect a wider range of smoke particles. According to Google, the Split-Spectrum Sensor adds all the benefits of Ionization smoke detectors, without drawbacks like false alarms (or buying two types of smoke detectors).

Of course, the downside here is that the Nest Protect costs a lot more than any other smoke detector. In many cases, you can buy three standard photoelectric detectors for the price of one Nest Protect. It may be a convenient upgrade if you already have Nest gear at home, but it’s paying a pretty penny for the privilege.

Best budget: Kidde Smoke Detector (i12060)

Kidde

SEE IT

Why it made the cut: The Kidde Smoke Detector is simple, affordable, and offers powerful interconnectivity.

Specs

• Type: Hardwired (battery backup; 9-volt)
• Sensor: Ionization
• Interconnectivity: Yes

Pros

• Very affordable
• Interconnectivity
• Easily replaceable backup battery

Cons

• Requires professional installation
• Hardwired might work in all homes

If you’re already planning to get some electrical work done, this Kidde Smoke Detector is a very affordable hardwired smoke detector with a battery backup. It looks simple but can sync with up to 24 safety devices, including up to 18 smoke alarms. In addition to a hush/test button on the front, Kidde’s smoke detector also features a tamper-resistant locking pin, a low battery indicator, and a flashing LED, so you know it’s working. Conveniently, the unit also features a front-facing battery door, so you can easily replace the 9-volt battery. Small features like this can make a big difference, particularly if you’re in a space with multiple alarms.

Things to consider when buying the best smoke detectors

A smoke detector, or “smoke alarm,” senses the presence of smoke and blasts a loud alarm in response. While they vary in size and shape, household models typically feature plastic enclosures and are mounted high on a wall or ceiling.

Though smoke detectors seem ubiquitous and interchangeable, manufacturers use a couple of different methods to make them:

• Photoelectric smoke detectors trigger an alarm when smoke enters a chamber and reflects light onto a sensor. They protect better against slow, smoldering fires than fast, raging fires. 

• Ionization smoke detectors feature a sensor with a small amount of radioactive material between two electrically charged plates. When smoke enters the chamber, the flow of ions becomes disrupted, activating the alarm. Ionization-type detectors are generally better at identifying fast-burning flaming fires.

Both photoelectric- and ionization-style detectors have advantages and disadvantages, so there is no one obvious choice. For comprehensive coverage, the NFPA recommends using both kinds in your home. Some devices feature both technologies in a single device.

We recommend placing your smoke detectors based on their expertise. Use photoelectric detectors near stoves and outside of bathrooms, where smoke may accumulate over time from a small fire. Put ionization-style units in areas where fires are less likely to start so that they can catch fast-moving flames.

You shouldn’t have to think too much about your smoke detectors. A great one should be easy to install, take little effort to maintain, and accurately alert you when there’s an emergency. After installing a smoke detector, you shouldn’t even notice it’s there (unless it goes off). We considered dozens of options to find the best smoke detector. These factors separated the good detectors from the bad ones.

UL listing

The first and most important thing to look for in a smoke detector is a certification from Underwriters Laboratories, the safety science company that sets standards for equipment like smoke and carbon monoxide detectors. All smoke detector manufacturers must meet the company’s most recent standard for smoke alarms, ANSI/UL 217, to place a UL certification on their products. Essentially, the “UL Listed” seal of approval tells you that a detector has been tested to meet strict requirements and will work as advertised. 

Hardwired vs. battery-powered

In addition to sensor technology, smoke detectors vary based on how they receive power. Most detectors rely on disposable batteries but hardwired models that you wire into your home’s power are also an option.

Battery-powered smoke detectors—which usually rely on disposable 9-volt, AA, or lithium cells—offer flexible placement. You can easily install one in any room in your home at any time. They also require slightly more maintenance, as you need to replace their batteries annually to ensure they’re operational. It’s important to note that manufacturers advise against using rechargeable batteries in smoke detectors, as they lose their charge more quickly and have a shorter runtime than standard disposable batteries.

Alternatively, some battery-powered detectors come with sealed-in lithium batteries designed to last 10 years, making it so you never have to worry about replacing a battery. Some states, including California, require you to use this kind of detector to prevent people from taking the batteries out when the alarm goes off. Check your state and city ordinances for the best guidance on what’s required in your area.

Other smoke detectors are designed to get hardwired into your home’s electrical system. This makes it so you’ll never have to replace a battery to keep them operational. That said, installing them is a much more time-intensive process and includes working with electrical wiring. If you purchase a hardwired detector, make sure to buy one that features a backup battery, which will keep your detectors on if your house loses power.

Interconnectivity

If you need to protect a large home with multiple floors, it helps to buy a set of “interconnected” smoke detectors that can sync with each other so that if one detector senses smoke, all of your alarms will go off. In the event of a serious, fast-moving fire, this will ensure that everyone in your home knows to get outside as quickly as possible.

Smart features

Most smoke detectors are relatively basic devices, but there are some newer “smart” models with internet-enabled features. These detectors will often sync up with a mobile app, allowing you to check their status and mute them from your phone. The app also can give you a warning before the alarm goes off, giving you a small window to silence it if you’re cooking or already know it’s a false alarm. Some even offer voice alerts and can tell you which detector senses smoke.

FAQs

Final thoughts on the best smoke detectors

• Best photoelectric: First Alert SA511 CN2-3ST
• Best ionization: First Alert 9120B Smoke Detector
• Best for smoke and carbon monoxide detector: Kidde Smoke & Carbon Monoxide
• Best battery-powered: First Alert PR710 Slim Smoke Alarm
• Best smart: Google Nest Protect
• Best budget: Kidde Smoke Detector (i12060)

A house fire can spread quickly, so every second counts. An early warning from a smoke detector can be the difference between life and death. If your home isn’t properly outfitted with detectors, you should take the time to install them. Your safety depends on it.

Why trust us

Popular Science started writing about technology more than 150 years ago. There was no such thing as “gadget writing” when we published our first issue in 1872, but if there was, our mission to demystify the world of innovation for everyday readers means we would have been all over it. Here in the present, PopSci is fully committed to helping readers navigate the increasingly intimidating array of devices on the market right now.

Our writers and editors have combined decades of experience covering and reviewing consumer electronics. We each have our own obsessive specialties—from high-end audio to video games to cameras and beyond—but when we’re reviewing devices outside of our immediate wheelhouses, we do our best to seek out trustworthy voices and opinions to help guide people to the very best recommendations. We know we don’t know everything, but we’re excited to live through the analysis paralysis that internet shopping can spur so readers don’t have to.

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Every nerve in your body is now on high alert, and you turn on the light just in time to see a flash of fur dart into the crack under your closet door. You scream an undignified “YEEAAARRGGEETTTOUTTTTT,” which, roughly translated from panicked shrieking, means: “Hello, you are a mouse. Please leave.”

Signs you have a mouse in your house

“Something I’ve noted over the years is that you know someone has a mouse when you hear the very distinct scream the person makes when they’ve seen a mouse,” jokes Michelle Niedermeier of Pennsylvania State University. “Male, female, old, young—it’s the same screech.”

Niedermeier works with the Pennsylvania Integrated Pest Management Program, helping communities deal with pest problems. She says that often, for her, the first sign of a mouse is seeing the critter itself scurry across the floor.

But because mice are nocturnal and you’re unlikely to see them (or you may catch only catch a bleary-eyed glimpse in the middle of the night), there are other signs of an infestation you should be aware of. They may also be inhabiting areas you only visit infrequently, such as an attic or crawlspace.

One of the most obvious signs of a mouse infestation is feces. The poop of a typical house mouse is only a few millimeters long, black, and pellet-like. Mice poop a lot, and they poop just about everywhere, so seeing their droppings is usually a good sign that the rodents have taken up residence.

If an infestation goes on for long enough, you might start to notice a distinct and unpleasant smell, or even some strange markings on your walls.

“Where mice go, they leave scent, and they leave a grease trail too,” says Jeff Schalau, an extension agent with The University of Arizona Cooperative Extension. Near baseboards and along walls, this grease trail resembles the smudges from handprints on a painted surface. It appears when a mouse rubs against the wall, leaving behind dirt and oils from its fur. Mice tend to avoid open spaces, and will usually travel as close to the wall as possible, which makes their trails easy to predict.

The best way to get rid of mice

Unlike some other pests, a mouse infestation is one you can take care of yourself. There’s no need to call an exterminator—just screw your courage to the sticking place and get to work.

“It all boils down to food, water, and shelter,” Niedermeier says. Cut off those three things, and you’ll make your home a lot less attractive to mice.

The problem is that mice are resourceful. For water, they can take advantage of leaks that you might not even know exist, and for shelter, they can make use of just about any kind of clutter or hole. That makes food the most important factor to tackle. “Eliminating food is paramount to getting rid of a mouse problem,” Niedermeier says.

Mice will eat pretty much anything, too, so you’ll have to be thorough. Start by cleaning up any crumbs or food debris on surfaces and floors. When you cook, promptly clean dirty dishes instead of letting them sit out. Store food in places mice can’t reach, like the refrigerator, or inside containers they cannot nibble through, such as glass or sturdy plastic. And don’t forget about your pets’ supply. Only put out the amount of food a pet will eat in one sitting. While Fifi might like grazing on kibble throughout the day, so do mice.

Then it’s time to block up all the unconventional entrance and exit points. If you happen to see a mouse, pay attention to where it runs, and stay on the lookout for any holes or cracks.

“If you can stick a regular old pencil in a hole, a mouse can get through,” Niedermeier says. She explains that the largest part of a mouse is its tiny skull, which is usually only the width of a pencil. “If their head can get through, the rest of their body can get through as well,” she adds.

Close up any holes you see, and even the holes you’ve helped put in. Holes around pipes or wiring are often overlooked, but can act as a mouse superhighway system through your home. Don’t forget to look up high—mice can climb walls as long as their claws can grab hold.

When you fill in holes, use high-quality materials that will last for years. In the end, it will save you a lot of work. Niedermeier recommends using silicone caulk or stainless steel or copper mesh—think a pot scrubber—to block any openings. Silicone lasts for a longer time than latex caulk, and unlike steel wool, copper and stainless steel don’t rust.

“You really only want to do this job once,” Niedermeier says. And if you do it well enough, your hard work will keep mice away as long as your home remains sealed-up.

3. Trap any remaining mice

So you’ve cleaned up, boxed up, and sealed up your home—but there are still some mice inside. Now, it’s time to get rid of the stalwarts that remain. It’s time to address the big question: Do you know how to catch a mouse?

For starters, as much as you might want to, you can’t just snatch them up and take them outside. Mice have excellent senses of direction, and even moving them some distance from your house isn’t enough to get rid of them. In experiments, they find their way home quickly, even heading through obstacles to get back to their residences. The best way to get rid of mice from your home, unfortunately, is to kill them.

[Related: How to fight an ant infestation]

The most effective method is a trap, baited with tasty morsels like peanut butter, oats, or dried fruit. Place them along baseboards and walls, where mice prefer to travel, with the bait directly in their path. Simple wood and wire snap traps are a classic for a reason. They work fast, they’re effective, they’re cheap, and they’re reusable. When in doubt, this is a good first option for any home with a mouse problem.

More modern plastic snap traps, which look something like a binder clip, are also effective. Like the wooden snap traps, the plastic ones are easy to set up and use. Between the two, it’s mostly a matter of personal preference.

If you have a pet, be sure to place the traps where your pet can’t reach. If this isn’t possible, Schalau recommends placing a sturdy box with a mouse-sized hole in it along the wall and over the trap. This will allow the mouse to reach the bait, while keeping your pet safe.

Another effective and humane option is an electric box trap, which can be baited just like a snap trap. The battery-powered machine has an opening that mice can run into to try and catch the bait. When a mouse enters the box, it steps on a plate that carries a current and is instantly electrocuted. Then, a small light begins flashing to indicate that the trap has caught a mouse and should be re-set. Electric box traps are good for getting rid of mice in homes with pets, because they are completely enclosed—no dog or cat can get to the charged plate. In addition, they leave very little mess, which makes them easy to clean. The downside is that you do need to make sure the batteries are regularly charged, and they cost considerably more than a snap trap.

“Mice are a health concern,” Niedermeier says. “They spread disease, they trigger asthma, and so having a mouse in your house is a real health issue.”

They also tend to carry foodborne diseases like salmonella. And since mice enjoy noshing on the same foods that people and pets do, they have the potential to spread diseases onto our food and meal preparation surfaces.

And that’s not the only illness these fuzzy creatures can spread. “Hantavirus is a serious issue out here in the west,” Schalau says. Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome, carried by rodents including mice, can be fatal.

So if you find a mouse, don’t try cohabiting. “As soon as you identify a problem, take action,” Schalau says. Otherwise, the infestation will only grow—and you’ll soon have to contend with multiple generations of rodents. “Their reproductive potential is off the charts,” Schalau says. “At the first sign of any mice inside your house, you need to get on it.”

What not to do when you’re getting rid of mice

It’s not enough to know how to kill mice—you need to do it properly. Poison might sound good, but pest control experts do not recommend this option. While it will kill mice, poison can also kill any animals that might feed on mouse carcasses. It can also inadvertently poison pets.

And there’s another downside. Most poisons don’t work instantly, for good reason: Manufacturers don’t want mice to become gun-shy of poisoned bait. So what often happens is that a mouse eats a poison pellet, walks back to its nest, and only then dies. Unfortunately, mice like tiny holes and often take up residence in hard-to-reach places like walls.

Trust. You do not want to smell a dead mouse for months as it slowly decays inside your walls. Don’t do it.

Another popular option on the market is glue traps, which stick to the bodies of any mice that walk over the trap. Theoretically, this should immobilize the mouse. But starving to death while stuck to a piece of cardboard is not a great or humane way to go. And few people are willing to kill the mouse by hand. That is, if the trap actually works.

“The glue, though it’s sticky, is not sticky enough,” Niedermeier says. Older, stronger mice—which are more likely to be breeding and creating a mouse problem—can often pull themselves out of the glue traps, sometimes with a very gruesome effect. “They are ready, willing, and able to gnaw off their own arm to get out of it,” she explains. “It’s more humane to use a snap trap.”

Cleaning up after a mouse infestation

Once you’ve closed off access to your food, water, and shelter, sealed entrances and exits, and killed any interlopers unfortunate enough to remain in your domain, it’s time to clean up.

If you used traps, you should keep your hands covered while you dispose of mouse carcasses in the trash. Use disposable gloves, a plastic bag, or even sturdy leather work gloves to keep a safe distance between you and the mouse. Remember, mice can harbor diseases, so you’ll want to be cautious as you handle their bodies.

You can also take the bodies outside if you live in a rural area, but be sure to put the remains in an area far away from your house, where pets won’t be likely to bring them back in, and they won’t attract additional unwanted scavengers.

Also, take the opportunity to clean up any mouse urine or droppings, wearing a face mask if you are allergic or have asthma. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention says the safest way to clean up after mice is to wear gloves and spray the droppings with diluted bleach before wiping up the waste. Needless to say, washing any clothing or bedding that mice have pooped on is always a good idea. And don’t forget to wash your hands afterward.

Whew. You’re all set. Sleep the sleep of the content knowing that you have a mouse-free house.

This story has been updated. It was originally published on February 24, 2017.

The post How to get rid of mice and keep them away appeared first on Popular Science.

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COVID-19 is no longer a public health emergency in the US. The Biden administration’s deadline follows the World Health Organization’s announcement last week that removed COVID’s status as a global health crisis.

Infectious disease experts tell Popular Science that it’s an encouraging step and a sign that we are in a very different place than where we were in 2020. And while the recent decisions in no way mean the virus is gone—it’s expected to be endemic like the flu—access to COVID testing, treatments such as Paxlovid, and the vaccines have put the US in a position to coexist with it.

That said, managing your safety will come at a higher cost now. In one of the biggest changes from ending the federal emergency response, insurances are no longer required to cover the costs of COVID testing or reimburse people if they bought an over-the-counter home COVID-19 test. The federal government is also ending its free COVID-test program over the mail. 

As the financial burden of testing shifts to families and individuals, knowing where and when to get tested will keep you protected as the country transitions into this new stage of the pandemic. “We’re still seeing up to 1,000 deaths a week in the US from COVID for people that are older and at risk,” warns Del DeHart, a medical director of the infectious diseases department at the University of Michigan Health-West. “For those people, COVID is still not over and so testing for early treatment is going to be critical.”

Where to get COVID tests

There are still options for getting free COVID tests around the US The last day to order four free at-home COVID tests from the government is May 31, but local community clinics can give away free COVID tests or at a lower cost until supplies run out. 

Access to free testing might also depend on where you live. David Souleles, the director of the COVID-Response Team at the University of California, Irvine, says some state governments are taking measures to avoid financial barriers with COVID testing. California, for example, issued a mandate for health insurances to continue providing reimbursement for eight monthly at-home tests. Check your state government’s website to see what policies are in place following the end of the public health emergency.

If you are uninsured, the US government will continue to provide access to swabs through the Increasing Community Access to Testing Program. This government program partners with specific healthcare sites such as Walgreens and Quest Diagnostics to provide no-cost COVID tests with priority for people with a known exposure to the virus or who are showing symptoms.

[Related: An at-home test for both COVID-19 and the flu gains approval]

At-home rapid tests and PCR laboratory testing will still be available at your local pharmacies and doctor’s office, but it’s up to your insurance company if they want to bear the cost or require a copayment. What’s more, insurance companies may charge different prices for COVID tests; if they cover the cost, they may set limits on how many tests they will cover per individual. 

Prices for COVID test kits in stores like CVS range from $9.99 to $28.99, meaning testing can quickly get expensive. DeHart is concerned that the prices will create a financial barrier that will deter people from getting tested. If affordability becomes a question, it’s important to make every COVID test you take count.

When it’s still important to get tested for COVID

While most COVID mandates have lifted around the country, some employers and places might require you to get tested. For instance, healthcare workers employed in facilities like nursing homes will likely continue routine COVID testing. And as of now, many hospitals still require routine COVID testing for admitted patients, though it remains unclear whether the hospitals will cover the cost or if the test will be added to a person’s medical bill.

For voluntary testing, it’s important to evaluate your risk of having a severe COVID infection. DeHart says individuals above the age of 65 and those with immunosuppressive conditions should get tested regularly, along with loved ones in close contact with those that fall under this category. Souleles also recommends taking a test before visiting a relative in assisted living or anyone who is considered at high-risk of exposure. 

Other scenarios may apply, too, Souleles adds. “We would still encourage people to test before and after travel and before and after gatherings if they have the ability to do so. Anytime that you have the ability to test before you’re going to be around lots of people is great, and anytime you have the ability to test three to five days after being around a lot of people, that’s also a good thing.”

[Related: Long COVID recovery is finally getting the attention it deserves in the US]

If you have COVID-like symptoms, get tested before going out in public, even if the side effects seem mild. Testing early will give you more chances to get Paxlovid, which is most effective when taken within the first five days of seeing symptoms, and potentially avoid life-threatening complications. 

If you need to purchase a COVID test, treat it like you would any other over-the-counter goods. This includes checking the expiration dates to avoid a false positive or false negative result. You will also want to throw out any recalled COVID tests. If purchased for a later date, keep COVID tests at room temperature and away from the hands of pets and young children.

What to do if you test positive for COVID

If the test comes out positive, follow the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) guidelines. Stay home and isolate yourself from others in the household for five days. People experiencing moderate symptoms like difficulty breathing should isolate for 10 days. Monitor your condition and go to the hospital if there are any severe or life-threatening complications. 

If you must go outside, wear a high-quality mask and avoid going to places where you would have to take it off. Also contact your doctor to see if you are eligible for any COVID-19 treatments and start those as soon as possible.

You can stop isolating after five days if you have no symptoms. If you continue to show symptoms, the CDC says you should stay put until your symptoms improve or you are fever-free for 24 hours without using medication.

[Related: Getting COVID more than once might be even worse than we thought]

Keep in mind that COVID tests are only one of the many tools available to reduce your risk of severe infection and death. Both DeHart and Souleles strongly urge people to get vaccinated and get their booster shot when eligible. Insurers will still be expected to cover the bivalent COVID vaccine as a routine immunization, and the Biden administration’s Bridge Access Program for COVID-19 Vaccines and Treatments will continue to provide vaccines free-of-charge to the uninsured.

“Stay up to date with your vaccines,” says Souleles. “It’s still the most important tool that we have right now.”

The post Your guide to COVID testing for the unforeseeable future appeared first on Popular Science.

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When most people go hiking, they reach for stiff, heavy, boots with high-rise ankle support and thick soles. But others choose to go in the exact opposite direction and instead grab breathable, lightweight, flexible footwear that allows for more organic movement.

The concept of barefoot shoes is something of an oxymoron, but proponents of this style rave about the footwear’s ability to strengthen your feet and allow you to enjoy a more holistic experience outdoors. But hitting the trail in minimalist shoes requires some knowhow, lest you end up hobbling home with supremely sore feet–or worse.

The differences, however, are easy to spot if you know what to look for. Most barefoot shoes feature little to no cushioning, a thinner, more flexible sole, a wide toe box, and minimal arch support, if any. This design is based on foot anatomy and aims to allow more natural foot movement, feeling, and balance.

Barefoot shoes forgo some of the classic characteristics that pop to mind when you think of boots made for the outdoors, like narrow toe boxes and aggressive stabilization elements such as heel cups. But these minimalist hiking shoes can still offer features like high ankles, deep treads, and durable materials—after all, they’re still made for hiking.

Why barefoot shoes might be better for hiking

Most people don’t actually need any of the built-up features in conventional footwear, says Emily Splichal of the Center for Functional and Regenerative Podiatric Medicine in Chandler, Arizona. She is a functional podiatrist, human movement specialist, and educator on natural foot function. In fact, all that cushioning and support may be doing more harm than good.

Splichal explains that shodding your feet in footwear that highly restricts your range of motion can result in your feet becoming weaker from lack of use over time.

[Related: Walking correctly takes work—here’s how to improve every step]

Barefoot shoes, on the other hand, especially when combined with foot exercises like the ones Splichal recommends to her patients, do the opposite. A 2019 study from Brigham Young University in Utah showed that walking in minimalist shoes increases foot muscle size and strength. Plus, strengthening bones, muscles and tendons “can offer benefits all the way up your spine,” Splichal states. 

Other studies, plus anecdotal and anthropological evidence, also suggest that providing a wider range of motion to the feet (like barefoot shoes do) results in stronger, more stable muscles.

After all, our ancestors didn’t have super cushioning foam insoles or rigid arch support, and they got around just fine.

Potential health benefits of barefoot shoes

Most research on the matter has looked into the positive effects of barefoot shoes for running and walking, but don’t assume rough terrain is an exception. Splichal explains that the freedom of motion provided by barefoot-style shoes help train your body to move and respond to irregular surfaces–like trails covered in rocks and roots.

Less structured footwear can also help with balance, as allowing your feet to move and flex more naturally can unlock a natural stabilization response, Splichal explains.

So, if you step on an angled rock, a stronger foot and ankle, paired with a flexible shoe, can help keep you centered and upright and better able to react to uneven surfaces.

Hitting the trail with little between your skin and the ground also brings cognitive benefits. The slim sole on barefoot shoes will allow you to feel the earth beneath you, which a 2015 study from the University of North Florida, can help with memory retention. Plus, feeling the changes in terrain and the heat or coolness of the ground will provide a delightful boost in sensory stimulation.

For starters, while Splichal advocates for this type of footwear for most people, she mentions there are certain foot types that can’t control the freedom of motion a barefoot shoe offers and may not be able to wear them for long periods of time or may never be able to fully transition. 

[Related: How to save your feet from painful blisters]

This includes people with flat feet or feet that are overpronated due to ligament laxity. People with high-arched rigid feet may also struggle with barefoot shoes, as they often need the cushioning of conventional footwear to help absorb impact when walking for long periods of time. Foot injuries or plantar fasciitis can also make wearing minimalist shoes difficult, at first, but a slow transition can make things easier and more comfortable.

If you think you might have one of these conditions but are not entirely sure, a podiatrist like Splichal can help you make the determination. She even has instructional videos online about how to assess your feet.

How to start using barefoot shoes

If you decide to ditch your heavy boots and give barefoot shoes a try, you should do so slowly and with caution, as your feet won’t be used to the higher stress and load they’ll be experiencing. After all, you wouldn’t hit the gym after years of inactivity, lift the heaviest weights you can manage, and not expect to be sore the next morning.

So if you don’t have a foot type or condition that prevents wearing barefoot shoes, Splichal recommends transitioning by hiking on smooth terrain at first, which will help build strength, awareness and stabilization. And since your feet will be working harder than usual in the beginning, do the same thing you’d do after a strenuous workout: balance it with recovery.

Use a golf ball, small cork ball, or—Splichal’s favorite—a Neuro Ball, but instead of rolling it under your feet, stand on it. This will create pressure, which will result in a sort of deep-tissue massage to five points on the bottom of your feet: where your heel meets your mid-foot, the middle of your foot, the ball of your foot, the center of your arch, and the outside edge of your foot.

Then, work on strengthening your feet, which you can do while cooking dinner or watching TV. Splichal recommends an exercise called “short foot,” where you stand up straight, lift your toes, spread them out wide, and place them back on the floor. Inhale through the nose and as you exhale, push the tips of the toes down into the ground. Splichal says to use 20 percent of your maximum strength while engaging your core. Hold your toes down for the full length of your exhalation, then relax, inhale and repeat five times.

The post For a better hike, try swapping clunky boots for barefoot shoes appeared first on Popular Science.

Articles may contain affiliate links which enable us to share in the revenue of any purchases made.

Moriel Schottlender is a software engineer at Wikimedia Foundation. This article was originally posted on her Smarter Than That blog in 2008 and has been lightly edited for Popular Science.

Humanity has known the world is not flat for a few millennia, and I’ve been meaning to show more methods on how to prove the Earth is round. I’ve had a few ideas on how to do that, but got an interesting incentive when Phil Plait, The Bad Astronomer, wrote about the the Flat Earth Society. He claims it’s ridiculous to even bother rebutting the Flat Earth Society—and I tend to agree. But the history of our species’ intellectual pursuit is important and interesting. You don’t need to denounce all science and knowledge and believe in a conspiracy theory to enjoy some historical factoids about humanity’s quest for space.

On we go, to the top 10 ways to unequivocally, absolutely, positively prove the Earth isn’t flat.

1. Check the shadows on the moon

Now that humanity knows quite positively that the moon is not a piece of cheese or a playful god, the phenomena that accompany it (from its monthly cycles to lunar eclipses) are well-explained. It was quite a mystery to the ancient Greeks, though, and in their quest for knowledge, they came up with a few insightful observations that helped humanity figure out the shape of our planet.

Aristotle (who made quite a lot of observations about the spherical nature of the Earth) noticed that during lunar eclipses (when the Earth’s orbit places it directly between the sun and the moon, creating a shadow in the process), the silhouette on the satellite’s surface is round. This shadow is the planet’s, and it’s a great piece of round-Earth evidence.

Since the earth is rotating (see the “Foucault Pendulum” experiment for a definite proof, if you are doubtful), the consistent oval-shadow it produces in each and every lunar eclipse proves that the earth is not only round but spherical—absolutely, utterly, beyond a shadow of a doubt not flat.

2. Follow ships on the horizon

If you’ve been next to a port lately, or just strolled down a beach and stared off vacantly into the horizon, you might have noticed a very interesting phenomenon: Approaching ships do not just “appear” out of the horizon like they should have if the world was flat, but rather seem to emerge from beneath the sea.

But, you say, ships do not submerge and rise up again as they approach our view (except in Pirates of the Caribbean, but we are hereby assuming that was a fictitious movie series). The reason ships appear as if they “emerge from the waves” is because the world is not flat: It’s round.

[Related: How old is Earth? It’s a surprisingly tough question to answer.]

Imagine an ant walking along the surface of an orange, into your field of view. If you look at the orange “head on”, you will see the ant’s body slowly rising up from the “horizon” because of the curvature of the orange. If you would do that experiment with the ant approaching along a long road rather than a round object, the effect would change: The ant would slowly “materialize” into view (depending on how sharp your vision is).

3. Look up at the stars

This observation was originally made by Aristotle (384-322 BCE), who declared the Earth was round judging from the different constellations one sees while moving away from the equator.

After returning from a trip to Egypt, Aristotle noted, “There are stars seen in Egypt and … Cyprus which are not seen in the northerly regions.” This phenomenon can only be explained if humans were viewing the stars from a round surface, Aristotle continued, claiming that the sphere of the Earth is “of no great size, for otherwise the effect of so slight a change of place would not be quickly apparent.”

The farther you go from the equator, the farther the “known” constellations go towards the horizon, to be replaced by different stars. This would not have happened if the world was flat:

4. Conduct a stick test

If you stick a stick in the (sticky) ground, it will produce a shadow. The shadow moves as time passes (which is the principle for ancient Shadow Clocks). If the world had been flat, then two sticks in different locations would produce the same shadow.

But they don’t. This, again, is because the Earth is round, and not flat.

Eratosthenes (276-194 BCE) used this principle to calculate the circumference of the Earth quite accurately. To see this demonstrated, refer to my experiment video about Eratosthenes and the circumference of the Earth.

5. Climb a hill or mountain

Standing on a flat plateau, you look ahead toward the horizon. You strain your eyes, then take out your favorite binoculars and stare through them, as far as your eyes (with the help of the binocular lenses) can see.

Next, climb up the closest tree—the higher the better, just be careful not to drop those binoculars and break their lenses. Then look again, strain your eyes, and stare through the binoculars out to the horizon.

[Related on PopSci+: How to not fear heights]

The higher up you climb, the farther you will see. Usually, we tend to relate this to Earthly obstacles—like the fact we have houses or other trees obstructing our vision on the ground, and climbing upwards we have a clear view—but that’s not the true reason. Even if you stood on a completely clear plateau with no obstacles between you and the horizon, you would see much farther from the greater height than you would on the ground.

This phenomenon is caused by the curvature of the Earth as well, and would not happen if the Earth was flat:

6. Ride a plane

If you’ve ever taken a trip out of the country, specifically long-distance trips, you could notice two interesting facts about planes and the Earth:

• Planes can travel in a relatively straight line for a very long time and not fall off any edges. They can also circle the Earth without stopping.
• If you look out the window on a trans-Atlantic flight, you can, most of the times, see the curvature of the Earth on the horizon. The best view of the curvature used to be on the Concorde, but that plane’s long gone. I can’t wait to see the pictures from the new plane by Virgin Galactic—the horizon should look absolutely curved, as it actually is from a distance.

7. Scope out other planets

The Earth is different from other planets, that much is true. After all, we have life, and we haven’t found any other planets with life (yet). However, there are certain characteristics all planets have, and it will be quite logical to assume that if all planets behave a certain way, or show certain characteristics—specifically if those planets are in different places or were created under different circumstances—our planet is the same.

In other words: If so many planets that were created in different locations and under different circumstances show the same property, it’s likely that our own planet has the same property as well. All of our observations show that other planets are spherical (and since we know how they’re created, it’s also obvious why they take this shape). Unless we have a very good reason to think otherwise (which we don’t), our planet is very likely the same.

In 1610, Galileo Galilei observed the moons of Jupiter rotating around it. He described them as small planets orbiting a larger planet—a description (and observation) that was very difficult for the church to accept, as it challenged a geocentric model where everything was supposed to revolve around the Earth. This observation also showed that the planets (Jupiter, Neptune, and later Venus was observed too) are all spherical, and all orbit the sun.

[Related: Why is space cold if the sun is hot?]

A flat planet (ours or any other planet) would be such an incredible observation that it would pretty much go against everything we know about how planets form and behave. It would not only change everything we know about planet formation, but also about star formation (our sun would have to behave quite differently to accommodate the flat-earth theory) and what we know of speeds and movements in space (like planets’ orbits and the effects of gravity). In short, we don’t just suspect that our planet is spherical. We know it.

8. Consider the existence of time zones

The time in New York, at the moment these words are written, is 12:00 p.m. The sun is in the middle of the sky (though it’s hard to see with the current cloud coverage). In Beijing, it’s 12:00 a.m., midnight, and the sun is nowhere to be found. In Adelaide, Australia, it is 1:30 a.m. More than 13 hours ahead. There, the sunset is long gone—so much so, that the sun will soon rise up again at the beginning of a new day.

This can only be explained if the world is round, and rotating around its own axis. At a certain point when the sun is shining on one part of the Earth, the opposite side is dark, and vice versa. That allows for time differences and time zones, specifically ones that are larger than 12 hours.

Another point concerning time zones, the sun, and Earth: If the sun was a “spotlight” (very directionally located so that light only shines on a specific location) and the world was flat, we would see the sun even if it didn’t shine on top of us (as you can see in the drawing below). Similarly, you can see the light coming out of a spotlight on a stage in the theater, even though you—the crowd—are sitting in the dark. The only way to create two distinctly separate time zones, where there is complete darkness in one while there’s light in the other, is if the world is spherical.

9. Feel the pull of gravity

Here’s an interesting fact about mass: It attracts things to it. The force of attraction (gravity) between two objects depends on their mass and the distance between them. Simply said, gravity will pull toward the center of mass of the objects. To find the center of mass, you have to examine the object.

Consider a sphere. Since a sphere has a consistent shape, no matter where on it you stand, you have exactly the same amount of sphere under you. (Imagine an ant walking around on a crystal ball. From the insect’s point of view, the only indication of movement would be the fact the ant is moving its feet—the shape of the surface would not change at all.) A sphere’s center of mass is in the center of the sphere, which means gravity will pull anything on the surface of the sphere straight down toward the center of the sphere. This will occur no matter where on the surface the object is located.

Consider a flat plane. The center of mass of a flat plane is in its center, so the force of gravity will pull anything on the surface toward the middle of the plane. That means that if you stand on the edge of the plane, gravity will be pulling you sideways toward the plane’s middle, not straight down like you usually experience when you stand on Earth.

I am quite positive that, even for Australians, an apple falls downwards, not sideways. But if you have your doubts, I urge you to try dropping something—just make sure it’s nothing that can break or hurt you.

[Related: Have we been measuring gravity wrong this whole time?]

Here is some further reading about the center of mass and distribution of mass. And if you are brave enough to handle some equations (not involving integration), you can learn more about Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation.

10. Browse images from space

In the past 60 years of space exploration, we’ve launched satellites, probes, and people into space. Some of them got back, some of them still float through the solar system (and almost beyond it), and many transmit amazing images to our receivers on Earth. In all of these photos, the Earth is (wait for it) spherical. The curvature of the Earth is also visible in the many photos snapped by astronauts aboard the International Space Station. You can see recent examples on the ISS Instagram account.

You know what they say—a picture is worth a thousand diss tracks.

This post has been updated. It was originally published on January 26, 2016.

The post 10 ways you can tell the Earth is round appeared first on Popular Science.

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WITH A FEW infamous exceptions, it’s safe to say most of the content we see about children on social media has a positive spirit behind it. Your friend’s photo of their first sonogram and your cousin’s lengthy ramble about their toddler’s temper tantrums each come from a good place: the desire to mark a milestone, seek support, share happiness, or build community. But shifting the focus from the people who make the posts to the kids portrayed in them reveals a problem. 

The emotional, psychological, and developmental consequences of having one’s childhood—and all its growing pains—shared online are still unknown, as the first generation of kids conceived in the era of social media is only now coming of age. But studies and specialists are already warning that oversharing information about the kids in our lives might be fraught—both from an ethical and an online privacy point of view. 

“All of that seems innocuous, so you must be talking about influencers and mommy bloggers posting photos and videos of their children 24/7,” I hear you saying. Nope. Sharenting goes beyond the people making a profit off the content they share—the possibility of exploitation and what some may consider digital child labor is only a fraction of the problem. 

Think of it this way: A lot of the time, the kids in social media posts haven’t consented to having their picture or video taken and seen by people they know, let alone millions of others around the world. And even if they say it’s OK, they’re children. We cannot expect them to fully grasp the consequences of having their likeness and sensitive information posted online. Even educated adults have a hard time figuring out what terms and conditions and privacy policies mean, or gauging the social and psychological effects of broadcasting their lives. 

The obvious negative consequences of sharenting are the criminal and illegal activities it can lead to. Consider a post made by a new parent that includes a photo of their newborn, the kid’s full name and date of birth, and the name of the hospital. All that information will probably still be there when that infant becomes an adult, readily available for anyone who wants to bypass the security questions for one of their online accounts. And problems won’t wait for adulthood: A 2011 Carnegie Mellon CyLab study found that child identity theft was 51 times more common than adult identity theft. This is likely because a child’s identity is a clean slate with no credit history, Harvard Law School faculty member Leah Plunkett says in her book Sharenthood. 

Then there’s the possibility that the pictures you took of your child’s bath or your niece’s gymnastics tournament will end up on the wrong side of the internet. In 2015, an investigation by Australia’s children e-safety commissioner found that one image-sharing website for pedophiles contained at least 45 million files and “about half the material appeared to be sourced directly from social media.” 

Beyond these clear risks, the effects of sharenting on the psychosocial development of children are unclear. Data is scarce as we wait for the first children raised on social media to become adults, says Stacey Steinberg, a professor at the University of Florida Levin College of Law and author of Growing Up Shared. “Research, for the most part, is anecdotal—it is desperately needed,” she says. In her book, Plunkett theorizes that sharenting may thwart a child’s essential ability to explore, and that long-lasting posts may alter their personal narrative and sense of self, as many people they meet will go online and learn about them.

“Most parents do not overshare because they are trying to be malicious,” Steinberg says. “Most just have not yet considered the importance of their child’s digital footprint.” On the contrary, adults generally sharent with good intentions. Studies show sharenting is a way for parents to find validation and social support, and to help each other in an increasingly isolating landscape for child rearing. So instead of stopping everything and eliminating even the benefits of sharenting, Plunkett suggests four ways to post about the kids in your life in a more responsible way.

This is why getting kids involved in the decision-making process before you post something online can be formative in their digital education. Steinberg advocates giving children veto power over what you post about them online. Meanwhile, Plunkett says doing research with them and explaining—in a developmentally appropriate way—how social media works “models and supports practical and ethical digital citizenship.” This could also help them grow into adults who know the consequences of oversharing and have healthier relationships with online platforms. But whatever approach you take, keep in mind that as the only grown-up in this situation, you’re the one making the call to share or not to share. Kids are minors, and by definition, they cannot grant informed consent. 

It helps to think about children not as a source of entertainment or an opportunity to harvest likes, but as individuals who will one day face the consequences of our decisions to share moments of their lives. You might think you shared something silly or cute, like a video of them falling asleep on the toilet when they were three, but for them it may turn into a social debacle in the school cafeteria. Or maybe you run into an issue with something else—something you can’t even think of right now—that prevents them from getting into the college of their dreams. That’s the scary part: the not knowing. 

Read more PopSci+ stories.

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Summer is almost here, and for many Americans, that means it’s time to start planning that long-awaited road trip. With 312 million visitors in 2022, national parks are some of the most popular destinations for this kind of travel, as they provide a unique opportunity to connect with nature while, ideally, avoiding crowds. But there are nuances that can make or break your visit to a national park, and they don’t reveal themselves until you’re actually there—which can be too late.

On my first trip to Zion National Park in Utah, I expected serene hikes with birds chirping among towering red rock. Instead, I found myself surrounded by people packing into shuttles; the vibe more theme park than nature-y. 

Although I left feeling a bit underwhelmed, my second visit to Zion, during the off-season, was a completely different experience. I arrived the week before peak-season shuttle service began, allowing me to tour the park’s main road (Zion Canyon Scenic Drive) in my own vehicle. I camped on-site, rolling out of bed early for hikes, and experienced the Zion I had imagined—tranquil and sublime. 

They say hindsight is 20/20. Here’s hoping by borrowing ours you can plan a memorable trip.

When planning your park visit, take time to look at maps of your destination on the National Park Service website. These maps generally do a good job of letting you know how many miles separate different points, and sometimes include time estimates for traveling between various park entrances.

Of course, there are exceptions to every rule. A notable one is Zion National Park, which is so swarmed with adoring visitors that you’re not allowed to drive along the popular scenic road in your own vehicle for most of the year. Outside of winter, you’ll have to use the park’s shuttle system to travel that route.

Give yourself multiple days to explore

As you pore over maps, you may notice that national parks have distinct areas. Sometimes they connect, but sometimes they don’t. You may also be surprised to find you could lose most of a day moving between them.

In Utah’s Canyonlands National Park, for example, it can take six hours to drive between Island in the Sky and the Maze. Most people only make it to Island in the Sky, but self-sufficient, experienced trail drivers with high-clearance, four-wheel drive vehicles and off-road recovery gear may also want to experience the remote beauty of the Maze. If that’s you or a friend, plan for a minimum of three days.

[Related: 5 activities to show kids that maps can be fun]

But at Joshua Tree National Park in California, two deserts run into each other. It’s hard to tell the difference unless you know that the park’s namesake trees don’t grow in the Colorado Desert, but their Seussian forms scatter the Mojave. Absent that indicator, though, the transition between the neighboring ecosystems is seamless as you drive along the main road.

Other parks, however, may not allow large vehicles in certain sections, especially roads with switchbacks and hairpin turns. While you can usually avoid these areas, you may want to reconsider the size of the RV you’re renting, or avoid driving a motorhome altogether, as it may mean a must-see feature will have to come off your itinerary.

Going-to-the-Sun Road in Montana’s Glacier National Park is a great example. There, all vehicles (including any attached trailers) can only be up to 21 feet long and 10 feet tall, which is smaller than most RVs. If traveling Going-to-the-Sun Road and road-tripping in an RV are both on your bucket list, fear not, we have advice: Find an outfitter that rents short wheelbase Sprinters or small Class B RVs like the Winnebago Travato. 

No matter what park you’re visiting, renting a small RV may also make it easier to park at trailheads, where designated spots for RVs can be scarce or non-existent. Going small just might save you from having to park in a different lot. Nothing against shuttles, but you’d better check the schedule before you wind up stranded after a sunset hike.

For an experience you’ll remember for the right reasons, start with the right gear. But before you become REI’s best customer, consider your options. You can get second-hand gear in great condition from thrift shops or platforms such as Geartrade, Facebook Marketplace, and even Reddit. Renting gear is a handy solution as well, especially if you don’t normally camp or aren’t sure how much you’ll like the great outdoors.

[Related: How to make your outdoor gear last longer]

It’s also important to note that depending on where you are and the elevation, nights can get very cold––even in the summer. If you have an improperly rated sleeping bag, or you’re using it wrong, you’ll be falling asleep to the sound of your chattering teeth. The best way to prepare is to consult an outfitter near the park of interest. They’ll know exactly what you’ll need to keep dry, stay warm, and, most importantly, help ensure you don’t advertise your campsite as a bear-friendly buffet. 

When it comes to on-site RV camping, first-trip fails tend to center around electric hookups. Depending on your vehicle, you may need a campsite with power, but some campgrounds only offer “dry camping” sites with no electricity.

If you’re planning a multi-night stay without power, ask your outfitter lots of questions. You’ll need to know if the RV is equipped with solar panels, or if the house batteries charge up while you drive. Find out if the refrigerator runs on propane in addition to electric power, and if there is an onboard generator. At sundown, when the temperature drops, your furnace can drain your RV battery overnight. This can happen even if your furnace runs on propane, as its fan still runs on electric power. 

Not all lodges are made equal

If dragging your house around like a crustacean is not your thing, you can always opt for an in-park lodge, should the park of your choice have one. 

Lodge accommodations vary greatly though, and you won’t want to be surprised by a lack of air conditioning in the middle of July. When considering any booking, search online for visitor reviews and discussions on message boards. In some cases, you’ll even be able to ask specific questions to people who have stayed there, which may be the best way to make sure reality matches your expectations. 

So whether you’re staying on-site or traveling by car, make sure to bring a packed cooler and extra food. If you’re touring in an RV, stock the fridge. 

[Related: Once you know what happens to food you leave outdoors, you’ll stop doing it]

Even if you find your park has provisions available, you probably won’t want to spend precious time standing in line for the register when you could be out there becoming one with nature.

Seasonal closures happen, and you’ll also want to check for any permits or waiting lists for famous hikes. About a week before you set out, scan the websites for the parks you’ll be visiting to avoid disappointment. 

Even if you can’t time your trip for when your chosen park is fully open, its beauty will still shine through—just a glimpse is enough to know you’ve visited a special place on Earth.

The post A beginner’s guide to visiting national parks appeared first on Popular Science.

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There’s nothing like the adrenaline-pumping thrills and the sense of childlike joy that comes with mountain biking. For beginners, however, getting into the sport as an adult can be daunting. Aside from the physical demand and the inherent risk involved, collecting the necessary gear, procuring an appropriate bike, and locating suitable trails nearby is enough to deter many would-be enthusiasts.

Fortunately, if you take it step by step and listen to the experts, you can start tearing up single track in no time.

If the thought of a hardtail doesn’t convince you, maybe you’ll want to go for a full-suspension one. As the name suggests, this type of bike has suspension in the front and the rear, which offers a cushier ride with less jostling and softer landings. But as you’d expect, comfort comes at a price, and a full-suspension bike could leave a hole in your wallet of anywhere between $1,500 and $8,000.

Dwight Follien, president of Groveland Trail Heads, an organization that builds and maintains mountain bike trails in Groveland, California, implores beginners not to assume one type of bike is better than the other. Instead, he recommends considering what types of trails you’ll be riding and how often. For example, if you’ll only be riding occasionally and almost always on smooth or non-technical trails, you may not need to splurge on a pricey full suspension.

On the other hand, if you’re sure mountain biking is going to become a full-time hobby and you hope to start conquering difficult trails sooner rather than later, it may make sense to invest in a nice full-suspension.

“You could have the nicest bike in the world but you’re not gonna have much fun if it’s not the bike for you or it doesn’t fit right,” says Tom Fure, owner of MQT Bike Rentals in Marquette, Michigan.

If you have no idea what size bike you should ride, online size charts can be helpful. But to ensure you get the best fit, Follien says going to a local bike shop and getting sized by experienced staff members is a great idea. Whether you buy used or new, they’ll be able to help you dial in the perfect dimensions by measuring your height, and the length of your legs and torso. 

Hitting the trails with a rental a couple of times will not only help you get a feel of what you like in a bike, but it’s also a great way to see if you enjoy the sport before making the investment. Just look for a reputable company that will help get you fitted and is on call in case you run into a problem or overestimate your abilities on your first time out.

For safety reasons, you should always hit the trails with friends—ideally ones that have more experience than you but remember that you’re still learning. 

“The worst thing that happens to beginners is going out with advanced friends,” Follien warns. You may not be able to keep up, tackle advanced features, or have the endurance for long climbs. Getting left behind can be frustrating, but trying out jumps and drops you’re not yet ready for could be dangerous.

Taking a beginner-friendly mountain bike course and joining group rides can also help build both skills and confidence. To find one, look for local mountain biking groups that state if and when their rides or classes are appropriate for beginners. As a bonus, Fure says group rides often attract experienced riders, mechanics, and bike shop employees who may be able to answer questions or give you a hand.

Trail etiquette also dictates that riders headed downhill should yield to those riding uphill, explains Follien. Sure, racing downhill is fast and fun, but it’s a lot harder for a rider going against gravity to start again after they’ve stopped.

Then all that’s left is to get out and have fun. “You don’t have to be an all-star or pro rider to enjoy the trails,” Fure says. “The more time on a bike you have the more comfortable you get and the more fun it becomes.”

The post How to start mountain biking this summer appeared first on Popular Science.

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If you subscribe to Netflix, Amazon Prime, or any other streaming service, you’ve probably found yourself gazing at the screen as episode after episode autoplays, until you check the clock and realize you wanted to go to sleep more than an hour ago. But series like Stranger Things are seriously good television—so where’s the harm in binge-watching a bit?

The problem is that a growing body of evidence suggests the various demands of a modern-day lifestyle, including hours of late-night streaming, are seriously disrupting human sleep patterns. This, in turn, can damage our overall health. But just try telling people to give up their Netflix—it’s a recipe for failure.

With that in mind, the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, a professional society founded in 1975, has taken it upon itself to set some guidelines for enjoying top-notch shows while making sure your body and brain get enough rest. We can show you how to use them to properly balance binge-watching and sleep.

Take breaks between episodes

The AASM recommends getting out of “the autoplay loop,” where you watch episode after episode because it takes less effort than stopping the playback. Luckily, Netflix, Hulu, and other streaming services give you the option to turn autoplay off. The idea is that manually loading the next episode can prevent you from mindlessly gluing your eyes to the screen. However, it’s still easy for you to click, click, click through the episodes. Which is why you should also…

Set an episode limit

Don’t fire up Bridgerton and then wait to see how the evening goes. Decide in advance how much you’re going to watch before bed and then stick to that limit, regardless of cliffhangers. (By the way, this is the same principle you should use for a night of boozing.)

If you have trouble obeying this type of limit, you might have to trick yourself. One way to do so is by downloading episodes onto your phone. Because Netflix and other services support offline downloads for many shows, you can pre-load all the television you’ve decided to watch in advance. Then put your phone in airplane mode to stop yourself from exceeding your limits. Downloading also lets you catch up with Yellowjackets on the train ride to work, instead of staying up watching it the night before.

Stressed about finishing an episode on your commute? Try reserving some daylight hours when you’ll be able to watch without worrying about missing your stop or blowing past your bedtime. The AASM advises you to resolve the conflict between binge-watching and sleep by setting aside relaxed viewing time over the weekend.

[Related: How to add subtitles to Netflix and other apps]

Another problem with phones is that their glowing displays strain our eyes. All that staring at your phone is unhealthy, and one way to limit its impact on your sleep is to watch on a bigger, more distant screen instead. So instead of using your phone in bed, try streaming that media to a television.

Control the light

Bright blue light, like the wavelengths emanating from your video screen, will keep you alert and suppress the chemicals supposed to send you to sleep. To make sure you’re able to drop off when you want to, you should stop binge-watching about half an hour before your desired bedtime. In fact, the AASM recommends turning off all screens at least 30 minutes before you sleep.

For iPhone users, there’s a blue-light-reduction feature called Night Shift built right into iOS. It can automatically adjust the color of the screen during evening hours so that the display will emit reddish rather than bluish light. To find it, open the Settings app and head to Display & Brightness.

Apple has also included the same feature in macOS. To set it up on your computer, open the Apple menu, choose System Settings, and open the Displays tab. Click the Night Shift button in the bottom right, and you’ll be able to set the color change schedule and strength as you see fit, just as on iOS.

Android phones have a similar feature called Night Light, though the setup process may be different depending on which version of the mobile operating system you’re using. To activate it on a Pixel phone, go to Settings, Display, and tap Night Light. You can schedule a daily start and end time, and customize the intensity by dragging the slider.

The last thing you should remember every time you find yourself choosing between binge-watching and sleep is that AASM recommends adults rest for seven hours or more per night. Anything less than that can cause problems with work or school performance, cognitive abilities, and mood. You don’t need to stop watching movies and shows to reach this goal, but these tips should let you get a handle on your viewing habits, and make you feel a lot better.

This story has been updated. It was originally published on June 8, 2017.

The post How to stream movies and shows without destroying your sleep appeared first on Popular Science.

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Today is a very special holiday where a skunky smell permeates the air. If you’re celebrating 4/20, Popular Science has the perfect lineup of dope science stories to make you everyone’s favorite bud. Don’t puff puff pass on this one!

Essential cannabis accessories

First things first, everyone needs some cannabis supplies before lighting up. But with so many twists on glassware and other options, how do you decide? From vaporizers to grinders to pen batteries, PopSci’s roundup of essential cannabis accessories will walk you through the choices.

A step-by-step guide to rolling a joint

Rolling a joint can’t be that hard, right? Wrong. Thankfully, in honor of 4/20, our DIY step-by-step guide will explain both the art and the science of rolling a joint, with advice straight from some of New York City’s expert budtenders. It’s the perfect refresher for veterans and crash course for newbies, complete with photos, detailed instructions, and material recommendations.

Can CBD help you chill? Here’s what we know so far.

CBD, THC’s sister molecule, has been working its way into various products as part of a budding industry. CBD is legal in more US states than cannabis, and can be added to almost any product as long as it has less than 0.3 percent THC. It’s a great alternative for those looking for stress relief, or don’t want the psychoactive effects of cannabis itself. Still have some questions about CBD? It’s not a panacea, but it may be worth trying out.

Is growing weed sustainable? The answer is complicated.

Using cannabis products to ease climate anxiety might be a Catch-22. Researchers say it’s hard to measure the environmental impact of today’s celebrated plant: Grow operations across the US take up a lot of water, land, and energy. Here’s what we know about the sustainability of cannabis.

Can you overdose on weed?

All substances have their risks, what about weed? Well, thankfully its not possible to overdose in the traditional sense, but overdoing it does pose some safety threats. Before you celebrate 4/20, listen to this Ask Us Anything podcast on the side effects of weed to gain some insights on responsible consumption.

The tasty chemicals flavoring the edible cannabis boom

Cannabis may have a distinctive smell, but a little-known aspect to users and non-users alike is that each strain has a special chemical composition. Like wine with its various aromas (such as floral, fruity, or earthy) different strains of cannabis possess a signature scent and taste. What makes them unique? Terpenes, or “terps,” are aromatic compounds found in many herbs and flowers. There are hundreds of known kinds that yield diverse flavors and effects. PopSci reported a comprehensive overview on the science of terpenes, ending with a list of the most buyable varieties.

Is marijuana a performance-enhancing drug? The best evidence says no.

Unfortunately for many athletes, cannabis use still falls on the list of prohibited substances. These regulations are in place to prevent the use of performance-enhancing drugs and ensure fair competition, but does cannabis really belong on the same list as steroids? Learn why the scientific reasoning behind cannabis regulations in sports might be lacking.

Cannabis gets its high-inducing power from ancient viruses

The next time a friend thanks a higher power for cannabis, remind them to appreciate viruses for their genetic contributions. (At the very least, it was a joint effort.) The psychoactive and medicinal effects of cannabis probably evolved from ancient viruses Mapping the genome of the plant posed a challenge to researchers as an illicit substance, but as it slowly became legal in different states over the past two decades, they dove deep into its background. What better time than 4/20 to learn the evolutionary history of cannabis.

Why German scientists got cows stoned

Nobody wants animals to get high on our supply, but these German scientists did it on purpose with cows. Not to laugh at the animals’ “pronounced tongue play,” as researchers described: They wanted to test if leftover organic matter from the hemp industry could be fed to livestock, reducing waste and curbing methane emissions from regular hay and soy. The German study led to some especially silly bovine behavior and THC-spiked milk.

Does CBD show up on a drug test?

Using cannabis products might lead to a positive drug test that could cost you a job or other opportunities. For those that want the stress-reducing effects of cannabis, but have to keep off the grass, consider quality products with this CBD drug test and product guide.

The post On 420, learn more about weed with these carefully cultivated science stories appeared first on Popular Science.

Articles may contain affiliate links which enable us to share in the revenue of any purchases made.

When you finally decide to settle in and figure out how to roll a joint, it will seem simple enough—until you try and realize it’s way more complicated than you expected. Even when you succeed, you’ll discover there’s a huge difference between a joint that holds together and one that’s actually good.

We’re not going to lie: it’s a long way between weed wrapped in a piece of paper and your first properly rolled joint. But everyone’s got to start somewhere, and the right tips and tricks can help you make joints with precisely ground cannabis within perfectly rolled rice paper. Consider this guide the first stop on your trip to better trips. Just make sure marijuana use is legal where you are before you start rolling.

Rolling paper

It’s easy to get overwhelmed by all the paper options you’ll see online or at your local smoke shop, but there are some characteristics you’ll want to look out for. 

“The most important factor in choosing a paper is getting the thinnest one, so you can taste the flower better,” says Ta’Lor (who prefers to go only by her first name), a budtender at The Astor Club, a hidden cannabis smoke lounge in New York City.   

[Related: Can you overdose on weed?]

Ta’Lor, who’s the weed equivalent of a sommelier, recommends rice paper from popular brands such as OCB and Vibes. Ali Jamalian, founder and owner of Sunset Connect, a cannabis product manufacturer in California, says your choice of paper will be personal preference, but that thin rice paper is a great place to start. 

Then there’s size. Some brands have several dimensions to choose from but if you want to make a classic cone-shaped joint, you’ll need king-size paper. The exact length will depend on the brand, but it’ll always be somewhere around 10 centimeters, which is a little under 4 inches. 

Tips

You can definitely roll a joint without a tip, or choose your favorite from a large range of materials, from glass to cotton—it’s all personal preference. That said, both Jamalian and Ta’Lor advise using a tip, and recommend beginners stick to the classic cardboard ones. Glass is a bit too heavy and cotton requires a stronger draw. 

Tips play multiple roles in smoking. The first is to provide a barrier between you and the cannabis, which will prevent weed from getting into your mouth. They will also save you from charring your lips and fingers as you finish your joint. Finally, a tip will be indispensable while rolling a joint, as it will provide structure and shape.  

You can buy a bag of pre-rolled tips or a booklet of perforated tips you can roll yourself. Both offer about the same smoking experience, and the one you choose will come down to personal preference. The main difference between these two types of products is cost—a few cents per tip depending on brand and quantity. Buying in bulk, of course, is cheaper. 

If you don’t have a tip, Jamalian says you can use whatever piece of soft cardboard you have at home as long as it’s not laminated or printed on. But the budtenders at The Astor Club are even more cautious.

“Honestly, if you don’t have a tip, don’t use one, because you don’t necessarily know what paper you’re gonna be burning,” says Ta’lor. Her coworker, Calia, who also prefers to go by her first name, agrees: “When high heat hits something and then enters your lungs, you’re smoking those particles and that could affect you in the long run. We’re already smoking—you want to keep your smoke as clean as possible.” 

Other than rolling paper and tips, the sources we talked to recommended having a rolling tray and a good grinder at hand. You can use almost anything as a rolling tray (a plate, a cutting board, or an actual tray), but make sure you clean it before every use. Its main purpose is to catch any weed that falls out while you roll—and that will happen if you’re a beginner. Since you’ll either put that cannabis back into your joint or smoke it later, you don’t want there to be any crumbs, dust, or gunk that could eventually make it into your lungs or ruin the taste of good weed. 

Calia stresses that contrary to popular belief, grinders are absolutely reusable, and if you think it’s not shredding as well as it used to, it probably just needs a good cleaning. She suggests separating the grinder into as many pieces as possible and letting them soak in alcohol for a day. To clean hard spots or difficult nooks and crannies, like the rim, she recommends using a paper towel with alcohol. 

Old weed will crumble to dust when you grind it, which, according to Ta’Lor, makes it harder to put into a joint. “When you roll with a really great, really fresh bud that sticks together and forms itself, it’s way easier,” she says. 

To test your cannabis, Ta’Lor says you should squeeze the bud between your thumb and index finger. If it bounces and there’s little to no fallout, you should be good to go. 

Instructions

1. (Optional) Roll your tip. If you’re using a pre-made tip, you can skip this step. Otherwise, start by ripping a tip from your booklet. If you chose tips with perforations, you’ll be able to make folds where the dotted lines are and roll the rest of the tip around that shape. 

If your tip doesn’t have any guides, you’ll need to pick the shape you want to start with—the classics are an “S” or a “W.” For either one, you’ll need to start by making a tiny fold of around 1/8 of an inch (around 3 millimeters) on one of the short ends of the paper and then make an equal fold in the opposite direction: it should feel like you’re folding a very tiny accordion. 

2. De-stem your cannabis and grind it. A king-size paper should be big enough to roll a gram of weed, which is approximately two to three buds, depending on the size. Starting with that amount is a good baseline, but don’t be surprised if you can’t fit it all in there at first—more on that later. 

Take a close look at your buds and pick out any stems you might find. These will not only ruin your joint by possibly puncturing the paper or interrupting an otherwise even burn, Ta’Lor says, but might also damage your grinder in the long run. If it’s plastic, a stem might break the little teeth inside, and if it’s metal, it might blunt them quicker.

All of our experts agree that the cannabis you want in a joint should be on the finer side but not totally pulverized. The latter is more likely to happen if you’re grinding old weed. If you’re nervous about overgrinding, check on it as you go.

3. Clean your cannabis. Dump the weed onto your rolling tray (or whatever you’re using as one) and lightly roll it between your fingers. You’ll be feeling it out for any particles that are not supposed to be there: stems you might have missed in the previous step, plastic teeth or bits that might have broken off your grinder, seeds, and seed shells. 

“When seeds pop—oh, it’s the worst smell in the world. You don’t want that in your joint,” says Calia. 

4. Set up your paper. When you tug your rolling paper out of its packaging, you’ll notice it has a crease. This is where you’ll place the cannabis. Position the paper, making sure the glue line is on the inside of the folded paper and facing you the entire time. Handle the paper with both hands by placing the tips of your index fingers on the inside of the crease and using your middle fingers and thumbs on the outer sides of the paper. Your thumbs and index fingers should hold the paper tight, while your middle fingers act as supports to keep the glue side of the paper upright. 

Before you place any weed on the paper, get a feel for tension—the paper should be taut, but not so much that it feels like it’s going to rip. If it does (and the budtenders at The Astor Club say this will happen a couple of times) don’t get discouraged—just grab another paper and try again until you establish some muscle memory. 

• Pro tip: Take the folded paper between your thumbs and index fingers and roll it up and down to curl it along the crease, leaving a margin of around 1/8 of an inch on each side. This will give the paper more of a “U” shape that might help you roll the joint later. If the paper keeps slipping and you need more grip, lightly wet the tips of your index finger and thumb. If you lose any trace of the original crease, find it again by rolling the paper so that the front side facing you is only slightly below the glue line on the back side. 

5. Add your tip. With the paper between your fingers as explained in the previous step, choose a side to place your tip—this will be the bottom of the joint. A lot of people choose their dominant hand side, Jamalian says, but you should do whatever feels comfortable. For example, even though he is right-handed, he likes to place the tip on the left side of his joints. 

Put the tip on the paper so both edges are aligned, and use the index, middle finger, and thumb on one hand to keep it in place. 

• Pro tip: If you have a hard time keeping the tip in place, slightly lift the loose end of your tip and slide a half an inch of the paper into the roll. Finish by slightly rolling the tip upward. This will prevent the tip from moving around and will provide structure, which will later make the rolling easier. If you’re rolling a straight joint, though, this technique will leave you with less space to put your cannabis in and will make it a bit harder to pack it tightly toward the tip. If you want to create a cone shape, insert the rolling paper into the tip at a slight angle.

6. Add the cannabis. With your fingers holding the tip in place inside the rolling paper, use your other hand to put the weed in. From time to time, stop to secure it in place and pinch the joint to give it shape. Using fresh cannabis will make this a lot easier, as it’ll stick to itself and quickly take whatever shape you give it. 

Make sure you get rid of any air pockets, especially around where the cannabis and the tip meet. Any empty space will make for an uneven burn, creating what is known in the weed world as a canoe: when one side of the paper burns before the other because there’s nothing there to stop the heat from consuming the paper. This not only wastes cannabis, but will also ruin your experience as the smoke from the burning paper will alter the taste of your weed. 

Take your time shaping your joint. The ultimate goal is to pack it tight and evenly, which will come more easily with practice, Calia says. If you notice cannabis falling onto your tray from the top of the joint, Jamalian suggests you leave it there for the time being. “Beginners should know it’s totally ok to have half of it fall out while you’re learning. Eventually, it’ll stop happening,” he says. 

7. Roll your joint. Now is the moment you’ve been waiting for: the rolling. Using your middle fingers as support, use your indexes and thumbs to roll the front side of the paper down so it can only cover the weed and tip. 

Reposition your index fingers to cover the insides of the joint with the front side of the paper and slightly roll it up upward. This is by far the hardest part: Your goal is to securely tuck the front side of the paper between the cannabis and the back of the paper as tightly as possible, so you can continue rolling up. While you try this, you’ll probably lose a lot of the tension you’ve been building up to this point, so don’t be afraid to go back and forth until you get the tucking right. Just know that it’s OK if you can’t make it as tight as you want: this is all part of the process and it’ll become easier with practice.

Once the front of the paper is tucked behind the cannabis as tightly as you can, release your index fingers and continue rolling your joint up to the glue line. Finish by licking the line and securing the joint by rolling it until the end. 

8. Pack your joint. It’s possible that your joint is still not nearly as tight as you’d like it to be, but that’s OK. First, it’s part of learning, and second, you can still make it a bit tighter if you want. 

Pick up your joint by its tip and light tap it against a flat surface. Gravity will push the cannabis farther down. Here you can also pick up some of that fallout from Step 6 and put it back into the joint. Use your fingers to fit as much of it as you can through the opening at the top, and then use a toothpick, a slim pencil, or any sort of thin tube to gently push it down. You’ll want to be delicate and work slowly, as any aggressive move can throw away all the effort you’ve made so far to roll a quality joint. 

9. Finish by twisting the top. When you feel like you cannot put more cannabis into your joint and it’s as tight as it’ll ever be, it’s time to close up shop and enjoy. Use your index finger and thumb to twist the paper at the top of your joint. The more you twist, the farther down you’ll push the weed, so be careful not to do it too much—you might rip the paper. 

If you had a lot of paper left over and now you have a long tail at the top of your joint, you can cut it before you light up.

[Related: Is growing weed sustainable? The answer is complicated.]

Everyone we spoke to emphasized that a lot of personal preference goes into rolling a joint. If you later find that something in this guide doesn’t apply to you, go ahead and change it up. They also underscored the importance of being patient and practicing. At the end of the day, there’s a reason why there are so many tutorials on how to roll a joint: as simple as it looks, it’s definitely not easy. So do it repeatedly and try new implements now and then. It’ll serve as a helpful learning experience, but also a process where you find out what you really like in the end.

The post A step-by-step guide to rolling a joint appeared first on Popular Science.

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In early April, Cook Children’s Medical Center in Texas sounded the alarm on a possible surge in infant deaths. Since January 2022, the hospital reported 30 mortalities stemming from unsafe sleeping situations. And while the cause of death may not have been the same for every baby, most involved sharing a bed with a caregiver.

“We’re doing a better job at identifying what the causes are,” says Susan Katz, a nurse practitioner and the infant apnea program coordinator at Stony Brook Medicine in New York, about the report. In regards to bed-sharing, she and other experts say that though there are many reasons why parents might end up sleeping with their newborn, it’s never recommended. “The scream of a mom or dad who’s lost their baby because of something like bed-sharing outweigh any benefits,” adds Gina Posner, a pediatrician at MemorialCare Orange Coast Medical Center in California.

[Related: How to get your kids on a healthy sleep schedule]

About 3,500 babies in the US die each year from sleep-related incidents, including from suffocation and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Bed-sharing increases the chance for these fatal events. And while the number of sleep-related infant deaths has gone down since the 1990s, reports like the one from Cook Children’s Medical Center are a reminder that there’s still work to do in preventing these accidents. 

Why is sleeping in a bed with a baby dangerous?

First off, babies need to lie on firm surfaces, like a crib pad, says Posner. A soft adult mattress can be harmful because it conforms to the shape of the baby’s head, creating pockets of space that can cover their nose and mouth if they turn over in their sleep. A 2019 study published in the journal Pediatrics reported 14 percent of SIDS cases were from suffocation. Of these, 69 percent of the suffocations were from regular mattresses.

Bed sharing also exposes infants to other soft materials like pillows and blankets that can easily smother children, explains Posner. What’s more, pillows that are slightly elevated can force a baby’s head down so their chin rests on their chest. This position can block the baby’s tiny airways and make it hard for them to breathe. The American Academy of Pediatrics warns that any surface inclining over 10 degrees is not safe for a baby.

Another danger is the adult itself. A lot of accidental deaths happen when a caregiver rolls over on a baby, pins the baby down under blankets, or traps the baby between a wall and a bed. “I’ve seen even the best of parents who are just exhausted accidentally suffocate their child,” says Posner.

Is there any way to make bed-sharing safer?

There are multiple reasons why people might want to sleep in the same bed as their child. For example, some caregivers find that infants sleep better when next to them. “Sometimes [the babies] really do,” explains Posner. “They were inside you for nine months and it can be a hard transition to be outside.” Other parents might do it for the convenience of breastfeeding and immediately getting to go back to sleep. For sleep-deprived adults, a few extra minutes of sleep matter.

But both Katz and Posner say there’s no way to keep your infant completely safe when bed-sharing and caution against it, at least until the child turns one. The American Academy of Pediatrics also doesn’t recommend bed-sharing with infants “under any circumstance,” and recommends other alternatives.

How to practice safe sleep

Instead of bed-sharing, Katz advises caregivers to keep the baby’s crib or bassinet in the room that they’re sleeping in. Room-sharing might make it easier to breastfeed; if you prefer to do it in bed, Katz says there should be another support person awake and keeping eyes on the baby to make sure no one accidentally falls asleep.

One downside to room-sharing is that babies—and by extension, caregivers—don’t sleep well. A 2017 study in the journal Pediatrics found that infants who slept in separate rooms from their parents before the age of four months rested longer than those who shared a room (and got fed more throughout the night). The solo-napping babies also slept up to 100 minutes longer at the age of nine months. 

[Related: Improving your baby’s bone health starts in the womb]

The idea of losing a few winks might make room-sharing an unappealing option. However, waking up from your baby’s cries could be a way of making sure they’re protected against SIDS. A 2014 study in the journal Acta Neuropathologica found that nearly 42 percent of infants who died from SIDS—which includes causes beyond bedsharing—had brain abnormalities that affected the hippocampus, an area in charge of controlling breathing and heart rate during sleep. Spending the night in the same room but in different sleeping areas gives adults the opportunity to check on babies and ensure there are no hazards nearby that would compromise their breathing. 

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PLANTS ARE CRUCIAL to human survival, even when there’s no sunlight. But dealing with darkness is second nature for someone with a green thumb like Howard Levine, chief scientist for NASA’s International Space Station (ISS) Research Office. Nurturing leaves outside Earth’s atmosphere is not only important for cycling nutrients and water during future space voyages, but also helps alleviate the cooped-up feeling astronauts experience. “On the ISS, you’re up there for six months at a time. People often say it’s like being in the bathroom with six of your best friends,” says Levine, who has been growing plants in orbit for decades.  

Space might be an extreme example, but cramped, dark dwellings exist on the ground too. Keeping your houseplants alive in windowless rooms, in shadowy corners, or during short winter days can be a challenge. Luckily, there are strategies to help your flora stay lush and verdant, even when their sunny source of energy is limited. 

Mini indoor greenhouses

Darkness usually means a dip in natural heat. Colder temperatures slow our bodies down, and that’s true for plants too. The chemical reactions that control their growth decelerate and sometimes stop.  

In Iceland, horticulturist James McDaniel uses geothermal heat in his greenhouses to protect his plants from the wintry cold. Each of the structures has holes beneath that stretch deep to a pocket of steaming-hot water, he explains. “You can funnel that [steam] into the pipes through the greenhouse and use natural ventilation to keep the temperature a set range.” 

But you don’t need volcanic energy to run a mini indoor greenhouse, which can be as simple as a repurposed IKEA cabinet. A heater can add warmth, although you might want to pair it with a humidifier to keep from drying your houseplants out. For individual plants, glass dome cloches can trap heat from limited sunlight and also enclose water vapors, which protect plants from the crisp air conditioner in the summer and the prickly heater in the winter. 

Grow lights

Plant grow lights provide an easy and accessible energy boost in dim or pitch-black spaces. These specialized beams sport different features, colors, and prices. LEDs, for instance, are the cheapest and most energy-efficient option, using about a third of the electricity of old sodium lightbulbs.

While most devices stick to a warm white spectrum, plants respond differently to various illuminating hues. In Levine’s experiments on Earth, red light worked well for the slender flowering plants Arabidopsis. But in the ISS’s weightless environment, they stretched into funny shapes until he started adding blue lights. He eventually found a middle ground and doused the plants in green light at the request of astronauts who missed the familiar color.  

Bright surfaces

If electricity is a limiting factor, you can try to reflect light with mirrors or aluminum foil. Even brightening up your space with white decor, like a light-colored tablecloth, will cast a little glow onto your plants. While it’s not comparable to using a grow lamp or the sun (reflections don’t deliver as much energy), it could offer plants an extra boost. 

The makeup of your indoor garden will dictate how much brightness you need to add, Levine explains. Some flora, including lettuce and tomatoes, need more light than those like Arabidopsis; new seedlings need less light than fully grown plants. As you choose your seeds and seedlings, research their native ranges to learn how much sunshine they’d naturally get.

Plants are ultimately adaptable. They can stretch their stems toward available light sources or produce extra chlorophyll, the pigment that absorbs whatever luminescence is available. “Even though they may not be getting all the light that they would like for optimum growth, they’ll still grow,” says Levine. With only a little extra help, you and your plants can conquer the darkness. 

Read more PopSci+ stories.

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On Wednesday and Thursday, a particularly strange “hybrid” eclipse is coming to Australia, Indonesia, and some other parts of Southeast Asia, but you don’t have to be there to watch. Don’t miss it—the next one won’t happen for nearly another decade.

How to see the April 20 solar eclipse in person

The exact time of the eclipse will vary depending on your location, so you’ll need to check when it will be visible for you. Timeanddate.com has a particularly handy tool for figuring this out. To use it, click Path Map at the top of the page and see if you’re going to be under any part of the eclipse’s path. If so, zoom in to pinpoint where you are and click on the map to bring up an information box that shows when the event will be visible in local time.

Even if you’re in the partial eclipse zone, it’s worth stepping outside to take a peek at this celestial happening. “We are going to get coffee and freak out about the sky. It’s going to be fun,” says University of Melbourne astronomer Benji Metha about his eclipse plans. The moon will cover only about 10 percent of the sun where he is in southeastern Australia.

[Related: April 2023 stargazing guide]

If you’re in the eclipse’s path, be sure to come prepared. Never look directly at the sun. Eclipse glasses are readily available online, but make sure the ones you’re buying aren’t fake. Too late to buy? You can make your own eclipse projector instead. Unlike almost every other astronomical event, solar eclipses happen in the daytime, so you won’t really be able to spot other stars or deep sky objects at the same time. The sun and moon will be the only ones on stage.

Timeanddate is also hosting an eclipse livestream in collaboration with Perth Observatory in western Australia, where roughly 70 percent of the sun will be covered. Like Exmouth, Perth is 12 hours ahead of New York City, so live video will start at 10 p.m. ET on April 19 and continue until the partial eclipse ends around 12:46 a.m. ET on April 20.

Tune in, and you’ll be joining solar scientists around the world who are particularly interested in this event and the data they can gather from it. “I look forward to this eclipse, because it is a long-anticipated party,” says Berkeley heliophysicist Jia Huang. “A hybrid eclipse is very rare.”

When is the next eclipse?

If you miss the show, there are sure to be some incredible photos posted from the event, and you will be able to watch recordings online afterward. But if you want to see an eclipse in person, a few are coming to the States soon enough.

First, an annular solar eclipse will travel from Oregon to Texas on October 14, 2023, followed several months later by the next North American total solar eclipse from Texas up through Maine on April 8, 2024.

What to know about the four types of solar eclipses

Solar eclipses happen whenever Earth’s moon gets between us and the sun, aligning to block out the sunlight and cause an eerie daytime darkness. Eclipses are predictable, thanks to centuries of observational astronomy across many cultures, and “we can now forecast these events with incredible accuracy,” Metha says. It’s a good thing we know when they’re coming so we’re not surprised. “Imagine how many car accidents a sudden solar eclipse would cause if people were not expecting it,” he adds.

These celestial events come in a few flavors: total, partial, annular, and hybrid. In a total eclipse, the moon fully blocks out the sun. For a partial eclipse, the sun and moon aren’t quite lined up, so only a chunk of the sun is covered. Similarly, for an annular eclipse, some of the sun remains exposed—but this type happens when the moon is at its farthest point from Earth and appears smaller, creating a ring of light when it lines up with the sun. Hybrid eclipses, like the one happening this week, shift between total and annular due to the curvature of Earth.

Solar eclipses trace paths along Earth’s surface, with a path of totality—where you can see a total eclipse—in the center, surrounded by various shades of partial eclipse. The upcoming April 20 eclipse path of totality clips the northwestern corner of Australia and passes through the islands of Timor, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. The entirety of Australia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and parts of other Southeast Asian countries will experience at least a partial eclipse.

[Related: How worried should we be about solar flares and space weather?]

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Carpenter bees are some of the largest bees native to the US. They resemble bumblebees, but you’ll be able to tell them apart because they will burrow in fences, telephone poles, dead trees, and other types of wood. These insects are major pollinators, but they’ve earned a bit of a bad rap thanks to the damage they do to human structures.

If these bees have decided to call your home their home, it can be tempting to simply exterminate them, but you should take a more peaceful route. Because of how hugely beneficial they are to local ecosystems, many beekeepers say it’s important to safely move them instead.

The female bees start crafting these nests in the spring, laying their eggs inside for the males to visit and fertilize. The hatchlings emerge in late summer and leave the nests in search of flowers, before spending the winter inside the nest tunnels. You can identify a carpenter bee’s nest by the sawdust around or below it.

[Related: City gardens are abuzz with imperiled native bees]

The bees themselves are generally larger than bumblebees, often between a half-inch and 1 inch long, and do not have yellow stripes. You’re more likely to see the male bees, especially during mating season because they’re extremely territorial and hover around the nests. They can be intimidating, but they have no stingers and are unlikely to hurt you—the aggressive buzzing is all an act to protect their nests. Female carpenter bees, on the other hand, do have stingers, but won’t attack unless confronted directly.

Because they create tunnels, and may come back to them year after year, these bees can cause structural damage to load-bearing fence posts and other wooden constructions. They may also cause indirect damage, as woodpeckers like to go after carpenter bee larvae and can splinter the wood in their search for food.

How to safely get rid of carpenter bees

Despite the issues carpenter bees can cause, they are extremely effective pollinators. Nick Hoefly, a beekeeper at Astor Apiaries in Queens, New York, says that thanks to their size, these hefty bugs are excellent “buzz” pollinators. “This is a type of pollination where the insect vibrates the blossom to dislodge pollen, allowing it to fall onto the female parts of the plant,” he says. “Many vegetables and fruits, including tomatoes and some berries, rely on this type of pollination.”

Use almond, citrus, or another scented oil

That’s why it’s best to get rid of carpenter bees without hurting them. Hoefly recommends applying a drop of almond or citrus oil inside any nest holes you find. Since they don’t like the smell, they will most likely vacate and search elsewhere for a less-stinky place to build a nest. After they leave, you’ll need to fill the holes with wood putty or steel wool. If you have wood the bees haven’t found yet, take some time to sand it down, wipe away any excess sawdust with a wet sponge, and then paint it. Carpenter bees are attracted to unfinished wood.

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When it comes to tackling the opioid crisis in America, there is no single solution. Public health officials have taken measures to prevent future overdoses by reducing the number of opioid prescriptions, curbing the flow of illicit drug trafficking, and raising awareness of the dangers of opioids. But for the three million people already addicted to this class of drugs, the emphasis has turned to a quick-working treatment: naloxone.

It’s possible to reverse an opioid overdose with an injectable or single-dose nasal spray called naloxone (also known by the brand name Narcan). Street drugs and prescription painkillers like heroin, morphine, and codeine target opioid receptors in the brain to induce a pleasurable high. But they can also affect neurons that control respiration, causing a person to stop breathing if they overdose. Naloxone blocks the brain receptors so that the drugs can’t reach them, preventing this deadly side effect. “There are very few things I would call a perfect antidote, but, in this case, Narcan is one of them,” says Ryan Marino, a medical toxicologist and addiction medicine specialist at the Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine. He adds that naloxone works against synthetic opioids like fentanyl.

[Related: At-home test strips for fentanyl are just the first step to preventing overdoses]

In response to the growing number of opioid overdose deaths—75 percent of drug overdose deaths in the US in 2020 involved an opioid—the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved an over-the-counter version of naloxone. The decision makes the drug more accessible: People will be able to buy the nasal spray at places like their local pharmacy or gas station without a prescription. But while medical experts have lauded the FDA’s ruling, not everyone is happy with the news. There have been some concerns from the public about distributing naloxone and whether it encourages more drug use. PopSci spoke with medical experts on common misconceptions surrounding naloxone and its safety.

Myth 1: Naloxone encourages people to do more drugs

A common objection to expanding naloxone access is that it acts as a safety net for people with addiction to continue their drug habits with few repercussions. But Kathryn Cunningham, director of the Center of Addiction Research at the University of Texas Medical Branch, says research has shown no evidence that naloxone leads to more drug use. 

A well-known 2013 study in The BMJ journal found the number of opioid-related hospital visits did not increase in communities with programs distributing naloxone and those with less access to the nasal spray. Instead, naloxone helped in reducing the amount of risky drug activity in 19 communities that distributed it to residents.

Myth 2: Naloxone prevents users from getting treated for addiction

Think of naloxone as a fire extinguisher in your house, Marino says. You’ll likely use it if there’s a small blaze. But if you have repeated incidents or if your house becomes engulfed in flames, the fire extinguisher can only help so much. Eventually, you’ll have to call the fire department for help. Simply put, naloxone may actually convince people to find professional help because it gives them more opportunities to seek treatment and rehabilitation later in life. “You can’t seek medical services if you’re dead,” Cunningham explains. 

If there’s any deterrent to getting treatment, it’s the stigma surrounding substance use disorders. Research suggests laws hampering access to care and discrimination from medical professionals against patients with a history of drug use may discourage people from opening up about their addiction. Even when they seek out help, patients have reported being treated as if they were untrustworthy, intimidating, and immoral.

Myth 3: Only medical professionals can use naloxone safely

You do not need medical training to give naloxone to someone who’s overdosed. Marino says the over-the-counter nasal spray that the FDA approved was designed to be easy enough to be used by a child as young as 6. The box also has step-by-step instructions printed on the side. “It comes with this little nasal atomizer,” Marino adds. “You just take it out of the package, put it in someone’s nose, and press the pointer. That’s all there is to it.” If a person accidentally applies naloxone to someone who hasn’t overdosed, it will be benign.

[Related: How to break free of the bystander effect and help someone in trouble]

There is no age limit for being treated with naloxone. You can use it on a newborn with opioids in their system or even a toddler who’s exposed to fentanyl patches. The nasal spray expires after three years, and should be stored in temperatures between 77 and 104 degrees Fahrenheit. Naloxone freezes at temperatures below 5 degrees Fahrenheit, making it unusable until it thaws out.

Myth 4: Naloxone makes users violent

It’s been rumored that the sudden onslaught of withdrawal symptoms caused by naloxone might cause a person to become aggressive or lash out when they gain consciousness. That’s not typically the case. Cunningham says common side effects after treatment include headaches, disorientation, vomiting, and nausea—all of which are temporary, because it’s a short-acting drug. “Withdrawal is not life-threatening,” Cunningham notes. “Not breathing because of an opiate is life-threatening.”

Fact: Naloxone could save many lives if more people have it

The FDA’s decision (which doesn’t mention exact rollout dates) makes it so that anyone can be ready to jump in and prevent deaths from opioid overdoses. Marino says it’s best to think of naloxone as another item in your first aid kit in case of emergencies. “We might tell ourselves that no one in our life is using drugs or going to overdose, but you never want to have a situation where you need it and not have it.”

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Adulting is hard. On top of paying your bills and rent on time, you also have to factor in childcare, insurance, and student loan repayments, which are set to resume later this year. With inflation raising the cost of living, mass job layoffs, and the threat of a recession, it’s understandable if you feel like you’re spreading your money a bit too thin.

Everyone worries about money—and the lack of it—every once in a while. But constantly stressing out about your finances can manifest into a more debilitating mental health condition called financial anxiety.

 “It’s a fear-driven attitude towards money whether that’s money management or talking about money,” says Megan Ford, a financial therapist, and advisor for the financial wellness app Stackin. Fortunately, there are ways to change your relationship with cash and healthy ways to cope when thinking about personal finances.

About 23 percent of Americans have experienced financial stress at levels that meet the criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder, explains Joyce Marter, a psychotherapist, and author of The Financial Mindset Fix: A Mental Fitness Program for an Abundant Life. The number is even higher among millennials, where it goes up to 36 percent. “It’s very common for people to have symptoms of trauma while dealing with financial stress,” she says.

[Related: How to spend your money for maximum happiness]

Like any mental health disorder, financial anxiety affects your well-being. This condition can leave you feeling overwhelmed and in a state of self-imposed helplessness, here you feel like your actions won’t change the outcome so you give up and avoid it. With your mind preoccupied with money, there is only so much mental space for you to focus on other matters. A September 2022 study published in the Journal of Vocational Behavior showed that people suffering from financial anxiety have lower work performance as they tend to get distracted more easily, and emotionally exhausted from constantly worrying. 

This level of stress can also manifest itself in physical health problems. Research has previously linked financial anxiety to trouble sleeping, a greater risk of heart disease, and increased inflammation, which is associated with multiple health conditions: from gastrointestinal disorders to depression. Financial anxiety also has social repercussions with negative emotional consequences, especially when people choose to isolate themselves from loved ones only to avoid spending money, Marter says. 

Some might address their financial anxiety with unhealthy coping mechanisms, like totally refusing to look at their bank accounts, overspending and hoarding, or even avoiding spending money on things they actually need. The answer to overcoming this kind of stress lies somewhere in between splurging and extreme frugality and comes from nurturing your financial education.

“The more information you have, the more empowered and capable you’re going to feel in correcting your financial situation,” says Marter.

This doesn’t mean you have to spend thousands of dollars on a financial literacy college class. Marter says reading books on the topic, listening to money podcasts, and following money experts on social media, all help in learning how to best manage your personal finances. Following this approach also lets you digest small nuggets of information instead of trying to cram everything about money management from a single crash course. 

Just make sure the advice you’re getting is coming from a reputable source. Marter recommends financial experts such as Dave Ramsey and Suze Orman who offer online personal finance classes for under $100.

The first step is having a record of your income and setting a budget of how much you’re willing to spend each month. A popular method is to split your money by the 50/30/20 rule, which states that you should distribute your funds according to your needs, wants, and savings. 

First, about 50 percent of your finances should go towards your needs—this includes items such as your rent, insurance, and loan payments. These costs are often fixed expenses, which means that they tend to stay the same month over month, making it easier to plan ahead. Other essentials like groceries and utilities also fall into this category, but they provide more wiggle room for savings. For example, you can always opt for more store brands versus name brands when it comes to foods, or turn off the heat at home before leaving for work.

The next 30 percent of your income should go towards your wants—this is everything that’s optional, like dining out, movie tickets, and shopping. This is the area where you can cut back the most on your spending because they are variable expenses. Even though their price doesn’t change from month to month, subscriptions such as streaming services and gym memberships, also fall under this category, as they are optional.

The last 20 percent of your income should go to your savings. This will help with setting money aside in case of emergencies such as unexpected medical bills, or cushioning periods in between jobs. Unforeseen expenses may prevent you from putting this 20 percent straight into your savings account, but that’s ok. Just try to get this area of your budget back into shape as soon as you can. And even in the tightest of months, make the effort to save some money—experts say that even one percent can help you keep the habit. 

It’s also important to set up a budget that allows you to spend on the items that matter most to you. For example, some people may not think twice about cutting out rock climbing classes in favor of a lower-priced gym. But for someone else with a passion for the sport, there might be other budget areas they’re willing to modify to afford this activity. 

Everyone’s budget will look different. If you’re having trouble coming up with a plan, Marter recommends seeking support from organizations like the Consumer Credit Counseling Foundation which provides free assistance with creating a budget. Your bank or credit union may also have someone you can talk to in person for budgeting advice as well.

Your money buddy should be someone who can provide some tough love if and when you go over budget. Some people might choose their spouse or best friend as their accountability partner. If you don’t feel comfortable sharing your finances with your friends or family, Ford says you might want to consider seeing a financial therapist.

Marter says the best way to shift your mindset is through cognitive behavioral therapy. The approach teaches you to restructure your negative and irrational thoughts around money into more neutral or positive ones. An effective technique is thought-stopping. “When you have money anxiety and are worried about being homeless or some other catastrophic fear, literally say to yourself: stop. Then reroute your attention to a positive thought,” explains Marter. The latter could involve practicing gratitude and thinking about the all good things in your life—not just the material ones. 

You could also try calming techniques when you feel yourself spiraling. Mindfulness practices like deep breathing and meditation act as a reboot for the mind and shifts the focus to the present moment, helping you let go of negative thoughts. Marter recommends a deep breathing technique called square breathing, where you inhale through your nose, hold your breath, and exhale through your mouth all in counts of four. 

Ultimately, tuning into any shifts in your mind and body when talking and thinking about money, can better equip you for sticking to a budget strategy. “Turning up your awareness of your financial landscape is an important aspect of managing financial anxiety, but also a good money management habit in general,” Ford says. Because when it comes to your spending habits, the saying still rings true: knowledge is power. 

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In the United States, almost 32 percent of the average household’s purchased food goes to waste, a total annual loss of around $240 billion. All that squandered sustenance is hard on a household budget, as the moment spoiled food hits the trash can or compost heap, your money goes with it. But if you want to, you know, get what you paid for and eat your groceries instead, consider dehydrating them before they go bad.

How to make dehydrated food

Safely dehydrating food is fairly straightforward, according to Bryan Mayer, a butchery educator based in Kailua, Hawaii. He points out that safe dehydration techniques predate the Industrial Revolution by centuries.

“This has been a part of how we’ve made food safe to eat pre-refrigeration and certainly pre-canning, so it’s something that’s totally within reach for most people,” he explains. “It’s certainly something fun to do and something that I think we can use on an individual basis to reduce waste, keep things out of compost.”

Dehydrating meat, poultry, and fish

Mayer says the main thing to know about drying raw meat, poultry, and fish is that you’ll need to first cook it to a food-safe temperature specific to that protein before reducing the heat to a level more appropriate for dehydrating. If you need a reference, the US Department of Agriculture has a list of safe minimum internal temperatures for various foods.

Beyond that, start with the best-quality cut you can get, Mayer says. He recommends leaner cuts because you’ll have less overall work to do, since you’ll want to remove the fat if there is any.

“You’ll want to slice it however thick or thin you want, and then you’ll want to marinate it, usually up to 24 hours,” he says. The longer you marinate, the more any salt within your spice mix will seep into the meat, which means more time for the salt to penetrate cells and break things down.

[Related: Your food could be better if you salt it at the right time]

Any other spices will just sit on the surface of the meat, not making molecular changes like salt will, Mayer adds. There are no rules for what spices or other flavorings you can add to your meat jerky; you can go for tried-and-true options like barbecue sauce or mustard, or add something less likely to be in store-bought varieties, like Dr. Pepper or red wine and fish sauce. The People’s Choice Beef Jerky, a jerky purveyor, has a long list of possible meat jerky flavor combos.

Once you’ve decided the meat has marinated for long enough, line up the strips on a dehydrator rack or on a pan rack in your oven. Experiment with different lengths of time and temperatures, adding more time for lower temperatures (but always make sure as much moisture has been sucked from the meat as possible before you stop).

Dehydrating fruits, vegetables, herbs, and mushrooms

If you’re dehydrating fruits, vegetables, herbs, or mushrooms, it’s important to wash or brush them to remove any dirt, dust, or other contaminants, and prevent new ones, like insects, from getting into your newly dehydrated goods. That will help prevent the food from spoiling.

You’ll then want to cut everything into same-size pieces to ensure dehydration occurs evenly across your rack; a mandoline will help keep your cuts consistent.

Colorado State University recommends choosing one of several fruit pretreatment methods, using pure ascorbic acid crystals, citric acid, or other similar substances to help break down tough skins, prevent discoloration and kill off unhealthy bacteria. 

Because home-dried produce may not dehydrate evenly, you should mitigate mold growth by “conditioning”—loosely packing it in a shakeable container every day for a week—to help distribute any remaining moisture, according to the National Center for Home Food Preservation at the University of Georgia.

For vegetables, cut off any inedible parts, like stems or rot, before washing and thoroughly drying. Different vegetables dehydrate more easily after blanching, or briefly boiling then dunking in an ice bath, according to the Food Network. 

Herbs get a similar treatment: trim off any bruised, discolored, or inedible bits, as well as thicker stems, before you arrange them on the dehydrating rack. But you’ll have less room for temperature and time experimentation with the herbs, so set your dehydrator or countertop oven to the lowest possible setting and let them bake until they’re crumbly. You can also microwave smaller amounts sandwiched between paper towels for two or three minutes, then 30-second intervals until they’re dry.

[Related: Grow long and healthy hair with this DIY rosemary water]

If you don’t want to mechanically dry your herbs, sage, thyme, rosemary and other sturdy herbs can be bundled and air-dried indoors, according to the Oregon State University Master Food Preserver Program. Tender herbs, like basil and mint, can also be bundled and air dried, but OSU recommends hanging them inside a paper bag with vent holes cut in the top and side, closing the top, and placing it somewhere warm with good air circulation.

Dehydrating mushrooms is similar to other types of food dehydration, except you won’t need to think about pretreatment. You’ll want to clean them thoroughly, ensure no bugs are present, and trim off any inedible or tough bits before cutting them into even-size pieces. Different mushrooms will have different dehydrating times based on how moist they are, so a dryer mushroom won’t need as much time in the heat. Like fruits and vegetables, you’ll want to condition your mushrooms by storing them loosely in a sealed container and shaking them daily for a week.

How much food can I dehydrate at once?

At the height of mushroom season, Rob Rubba, a plant-based chef and co-owner of Oyster Oyster in Washington, D.C., says his restaurant “easily” receives deliveries of 100 pounds of local mushrooms each week. Not all of that will look pretty enough to be plated, so the less-attractive items end up dehydrated for use in future recipes.

That’s to say, there’s no maximum amount to how much food you can dehydrate—as long as you have enough space, heat, and time. But best practice is to lay everything out in an even layer with nothing overlapping on a rack on a sheet pan to maximize heat and air flow. Reasonably speaking, you can dehydrate as much as you can fit in your oven or on your dehydrator racks. You can also dehydrate different types of foods at once, but Rubba recommends considering flavor pairings in case of contamination. Apples and garlic, for example, wouldn’t taste great together.

That being said, while a dehydrator will cost money and take up space, having one means you can multitask in the kitchen by dehydrating while you use the oven for other tasks. A food dehydrator is also purpose-built, so you’ll be able to fine-tune your temperature settings, keep the heat and dryness consistent, and use levels of racks to dehydrate more than you could inside a single-rack countertop oven. In a pinch, you may also be able to build your own dehydrator.

But if you’re really low on space for a new kitchen appliance and feel like using a full oven would be a waste, Rubba suggests using the waning heat from cooking or baking in the oven to dehydrate food.

“As the oven cools, there’ll be a declining temperature that will be slowly drying it out,” he explains, adding that this is also a great way to make breadcrumbs. “The next day, you could pull [the food] out and have something dehydrated—and that’s a good way of just utilizing leftover energy.”

Dehydrated mushrooms can become vegan jerky, but they can also be remoistened and used in stocks, stews, or anywhere you would use a regular mushroom. Harvard University’s T.H. Chan School of Public Health recommends rehydrating mushrooms for 15 to 20 minutes in boiling water.

[Related: 4 benefits of eating mushrooms]

Other dried produce can be rehydrated too. Generally, you’ll need to soak 1 cup of dried food in 1 to 3 cups of water for 30 to 90 minutes, and the University of Georgia has a handy chart you can refer to when rehydrating fruits and vegetables (page 7 of the linked PDF).

Slices or pieces of dried pineapple, oranges, kiwis, or other fruits can be used to garnish drinks and meals, or be eaten as a snack. Veggies can be dried into chips that can be eaten as-is or crushed into other things, like pasta dough and salads, or as a topping. Herbs can be dehydrated and ground into homemade spice mixes.

For bread service at Oyster Oyster, Rubba’s team makes a vegan marigold butter with “an abundance of marigold flowers that we dehydrate to garnish that and give it these pops of lemony, fragrant flavor on the butter,” he explains.

Another benefit of dehydrating foods is the flavor concentration that occurs when the water is stripped out, which Rubba, a 2023 James Beard award finalist, says can lead to “amazing” complexity.

“We’ve boiled and smoked whole pumpkins and then dehydrated those for a week to get this solid, giant piece that we can grate onto dishes, kind of reminiscent of a bonito [flake],” he explains. Rubba’s restaurant has also “reduced cucumber juice slowly in the dehydrator, and it takes on these wild, spicy flavors that you wouldn’t expect from a cucumber.”

How long you can keep dehydrated food

Proper storage is key to making dehydrated foods last. Rubba recommends using an airtight container to loosely pack anything you dehydrate and popping a silica packet inside to wick away any remaining moisture. Just make sure the packet isn’t broken and that you clean or thoroughly check the food when you use it again—silica beads are generally nontoxic but can be a choking hazard.

That’s going to give anything dehydrated a longer life, especially if you live in a humid climate, he explains, adding that dried fruits, veg, and ‘shrooms are shelf-stable but shouldn’t be exposed to moisture, so they’re better stored in the pantry than in the fridge.

Dried herbs, fruits, and vegetables should last up to a year but will not keep as long under hotter conditions; the National Center for Home Food Preservation says most dried fruits can be stored for one year at 60 degrees Fahrenheit, six months at 80 degrees, and that vegetables will last about half as long as fruits.

Properly dried meat won’t last nearly as long, according to the center—only about two weeks in a sealed container at room temperature, although you can refrigerate or freeze it to increase its shelf life. But odds are you’ll eat it long before two weeks pass.

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April is officially Global Astronomy Month, a month-long celebration of all things celestial by Astronomers Without Borders, a US-based club that connects global skywatchers. The event features a Global Star Party and Sun Day and online lessons to highlight the conjunction of art and astronomy. April also happens to be an exciting month for space happenings in general. If you happen to get any stellar sky photos, tag us and include #PopSkyGazers.

[Related: Your guide to the types of stars, from their dusty births to violent deaths.]

April 5 and 6 – Full Pink Moon

The first full moon of spring in the Northern Hemisphere will reach peak illumination at 12:37 AM EDT on April 6. First glimpses of the full Pink Moon will be on April 5, but because it reaches peak illumination so early in Eastern Time, Western time zones will see it peak on the night of April 5.

April’s full moon also goes by many names. The “pink” references early springtime blooms of the wildflower Phlox subulata found in eastern North America. This month’s moon is also the Paschal Full Moon, which determines when the Christian holiday Easter is celebrated. Easter is always celebrated on the first Sunday after the first full moon of spring, so this year Easter will be on Sunday, April 9.

Every year, the April full moon is also called the Frog Moon or Omakakiiwi-giizis in Anishinaabemowin/Ojibwe, the It’s Thundering Moon or Wasakayutese in Oneida, and the Planting Moon or Tahch’atapa in Tunica, the language of the Tunica-Biloxi Tribe of Louisiana.

April 7 – 34P/PANSTARRS comet at its closest point in flyby

The Jupiter-family comet 364P/PANSTARRS will pass within 11 million miles (0.12 AU) of the Earth in early April. The comet will be in the “foxy” constellation Vulpecula and is expected to have a high brightness magnitude of about 12.3. It will be visible in the Northern and Southern hemispheres, but those in Northern latitudes will be able to see it better. 

[Related: A total solar eclipse bathed Antarctica in darkness.]

April 20 – Total solar eclipse

Eclipses are always an exciting event, but this one comes with a twist. A total solar eclipse occurs during a rare cosmic alignment of the Earth, moon, and sun. The next solar eclipse will be the first of its kind since 2013 and the last until 2031.

On April 20, a new moon will eclipse the sun, but it will falter a bit. Since it is slightly too far away from the Earth in its elliptical orbit to fully cover all of the sun, the moon will actually fail to cause a total solar eclipse for a brief moment. A ring of fire will be visible for a few seconds over the Indian Ocean, but the moonshadow will completely cover the sun and cause a total solar eclipse by the time it reaches Western Australia. Eclipse chasers in the town of Exmouth and on ships in the Indian Ocean will likely experience about one minute of darkness during the day.

A long display of Baily’s beads around the New Moon and a view of the sun’s pink chromosphere could also appear around the moon during totality on eclipse day. While this eclipse won’t really be visible in the US, we’re only a few months away from the 2023 annular solar eclipse, which will reach totality in the western part of the country this October. 

April 21, 22, and 23 – Lyrid meteor shower

The Lyrids are predicted to start late in the evening of April 21 or April 22 and last until dawn on April 23. The predicted peak is 9:06 EDT on April 23. While the peak of the Lyrids is narrow, the new moon falls on April 19, so it will not interfere with skygazing. 

Ten to 15 meteors per hour can be seen in a dark sky with no moon. The Lyrids are even known for some rare surges in activity that can sometimes bring them up to 100 per hour. The meteor shower will be visible from both the Northern and Southern hemispheres, but is much more active in the north.

The same skygazing rules that apply to pretty much all space-watching activities are key this month: Go to a dark spot away from the lights of a city or town and let the eyes adjust to the darkness for about a half an hour. 

The post April’s skies boast the full pink moon, Lyrid meteor shower, and a total solar eclipse appeared first on Popular Science.

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You’ve probably felt that spot on your toe, ankle, or heel heat up. A bubble starts growing and spreading, while thin layers of skin shred and tear: A blister is imminent.

These small pockets of fluid are a frequent nuisance among hikers, runners, backpackers, and anyone who’s ever gone out in new shoes without breaking them in first. But blisters don’t have to mean the end of an outing. On the contrary, this type of wound is easy to prevent and treat if you just give it proper attention early on.

The constant friction in a specific area caused by an ill-fitting sock or shoe, for example, damages the structural connection between skin layers and separates them. The body responds by building up fluid in the spaces between those layers to protect them from further damage and allow for easier and faster healing. 

[Related: You broke a bone in the middle of nowhere. Now what?]

The main problem with a blister is not its formation but the risk of rupturing the thin skin layer protecting the wound, also known as the “roof.” Without a roof, your raw skin will be exposed, requiring extra care to prevent infection. Needless to say, a ruptured blister is extremely painful and will surely make the walk or run back to the trailhead or finish line a miserable trek.

Fortunately, blisters don’t start out as massive, painful, fluid-filled bubbles. They typically present first as what Larson calls a hot spot: a small area on your foot that slowly starts to feel sore or sensitive. This means that addressing the issue right away can make your day a lot easier.

Sweaty or damp socks and shoes can increase the chances of blisters forming. If your day is likely to include long stretches of walking or running, choose socks made from synthetic, moisture-wicking materials. Cotton and other natural textiles just won’t dry up quickly enough while you’re hiking. Oversized socks don’t help either, as the extra fabric can bunch and rub, creating excessive friction and discomfort.

Likewise, make sure your shoes fit properly. They shouldn’t slip around on your feet when you’re walking but should leave enough room for swelling if you plan to be on your feet for most of the day. If you buy new hiking shoes, the general recommendation is to choose footwear half a size larger than you normally would. You should also break them in by wearing them around town or at home for a few days prior to any big athletic pursuits. The same rule doesn’t necessarily apply to running shoes, so the safest bet is to go to a specialized store and have your feet measured by a salesperson. They’ll be able to guide you through choosing the best shoe size and model for you depending on the distance you plan on covering and the shape of your feet.  

Heavy leather boots are usually harder to break in and often more likely to cause blisters, as they’re not as flexible or breathable as other footwear. If you’re hiking or backpacking and are prone to blisters, consider wearing lightweight boots or trail runners instead. If you know there are spots on your feet prone to getting blisters or your shoes feel especially tight in some areas, Larson recommends using kinesiology or waterproof first-aid tape to preemptively cover trouble zones and keep them from becoming a full-blown problem later.

Once you’re ready to hit the trail or pound the pavement, check your socks and shoes for debris. Remove any particles that might grate against your skin by dumping out your boots and turning your socks inside out. 

It doesn’t matter how many preventive measures you took: If you feel a hot spot or any sort of discomfort while you’re moving, Larson says you should stop immediately. Take a break and find the source of the irritation. Pay special attention to seams, debris, or loose socks, and remedy or remove the offender, if possible. To protect the spot from future aggravation, cover the damaged skin by slapping on a blister bandage or a piece of kinesiology tape. The latter is Larson’s favorite because it’s breathable, flexible, and sticky enough to stay put for days if necessary.

Dealing with a small blister that is soft to the touch (meaning is not entirely filled with fluid) is easy—just stick a blister bandage or piece of kinesiology tape directly over the offending spot. It should be large enough to extend beyond the boundaries of the blister area. 

But if the circumference of the blister is larger than a nickel or is fully filled with fluid and likely to rupture, you’ll need to carefully drain it first. To do so, wash your hands thoroughly and sanitize the skin around the blister with soap and clean drinking water, or an alcohol pad. Next, disinfect a safety pin with a different alcohol pad. If you don’t have one, you can also heat the pin over a lighter until the tip glows red. Just make sure to let the metal cool down before you use it to poke a small hole in the bottom of the fluid-filled bubble. Gently press on the blister to completely drain it out, and place a donut-shaped bandage around the outer edge of the wound or apply an adhesive blister bandage. This will prevent shoes or straps from pressing directly on the sensitive area. 

[Related: First aid basics for your adventure in the wilderness]

If the blister has ruptured or the roof is off, you should take special care to prevent infection. Wash your hands and clean the area thoroughly before placing the donut-shaped bandage around the wound, and then cover the area with a large bandage. If it’s really raw, say, if the roof has peeled back and your socks or shoes have been rubbing the wound for some time, use a hydrocolloid bandage. Larson also recommends making a jelly donut: use a moleskin donut bandage and cover the ruptured blister with 2nd Skin Squares, a jelly-like product that protects and moisturizes the skin to stimulate healing. Finish by covering everything up with a piece of kinesiology tape or an adhesive bandage.

With an open wound such as a roofless blister, preventing infection is your first priority, but Larson doesn’t often recommend applying antibiotic ointment. She explains that the cream can attract more dirt and keep bandages from sticking in place.

While she doesn’t prefer the latter, it can work in a pinch, especially if you cover the blister with a folded piece of tape (sticky sides together) slightly bigger than the circumference of the wound, and cover everything up with a larger strip. That will keep the adhesive from being in direct contact with delicate and damaged skin.

Larson is a big fan of hydrocolloid bandages, which are available at your local pharmacy. But be wary of traditional adhesive bandages, as they tend to slip off in the presence of sweat and moisture. She also suggests experimenting with different products to see what works for you but recommends you always keep some tape, a couple of alcohol prep pads, and a pin on hand, just in case. 

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I’ve always loved learning about the planets and stars, but it sure takes a lot to get me outside on a cold, dark night to see them with my own eyes. This week, though, there’s a celestial lineup I don’t want to miss—and you shouldn’t either!

What’s the big deal here?

Although there have been some wild theories about strange happenings during planetary alignments—like an increase in natural disasters—those have generally been debunked. Instead, the reason a planetary alignment is a big deal is that it’s simply cool to see. “You get to see pretty much the whole solar system in one night,” says Rory Bentley, UCLA astronomer and avid stargazer.

Usually, the planets are spread across the sky, visible at different times of the night (even into the early morning). They’re technically always in some version of a line—all our solar system’s planets appear on the ecliptic, an invisible arc across the sky tracing the plane where everything orbits the sun. If the planets are close enough together, though, they appear to be in an almost straight line. 

[Related: Astronomers just mapped the ‘bubble’ that envelopes our planet]

That’s precisely what’s happening on March 28. The five planets will come within 50 degrees of each other, a tight bunch compared to their usual spread, giving stargazers of all ages an opportunity to meet our planetary neighbors.

How to see the March 28 alignment

The time to spot this planetary parade is right after sunset on the March 28—no more than about 45 minutes after sundown, since Jupiter and Mercury will both disappear below the horizon fairly quickly. You’ll want to make sure you have a clear view of the western horizon, where the sun sets and Jupiter and Mercury will follow close behind. 

Jupiter will be closest to the horizon, easy to spot even in the lingering sunlight of dusk since it’s so bright. Mercury will be nearby—possibly visible to the naked eye, and definitely visible with binoculars. A bit higher up in the sky you’ll find Venus, shining intensely from its ultra-reflective thick clouds. It’s accompanied by Uranus, just a bit above—and for this one, you’ll definitely need those binoculars. Bringing up the tail end of the parade is Mars, up even higher in the sky near the crescent moon. (Bonus: you can see the moon, too, while you’re at it.)

If you’re not completely sure how to tell what’s a planet, know that the planets you see with your naked eye will generally be brighter than everything around them, and if you look really closely they won’t twinkle quite like stars.

You should be able to spot at least three of the parade participants (Jupiter, Venus, and Mars)—possibly even a fourth (Mercury)—with just your eyes if you’ve got good eyesight and/or a clear sky. Grab some binoculars or a telescope, and you can collect all five planets. Venus and Uranus will be visible until they dip below the horizon about three hours after sunset, and Mars stays out past midnight.

Another benefit to using a decently sized pair of binoculars or a telescope is that you’ll get to see a slew of neat planetary features as the alignment glides by. You should be able to spot Saturn’s famous rings, and possibly even some of the colorful cloud bands of Jupiter. Although you won’t notice any surface features on Venus, you will be able to determine what phase it’s in, since Venus has phases (crescent, full, etc.) similar to our moon. Keep in mind that it’s easier to see details when you have clear, still skies, and are looking overhead. The closer your target gets to the horizon, the more of Earth’s atmosphere you end up looking through, making viewing more difficult.

The Pleiades, a star cluster known across many cultures as the seven sisters, also shines between Venus and Mars. You may recognize this particular arrangement of stars from the logo on Subaru automobiles—it’s no coincidence, because Subaru is actually the Japanese name for this cluster. You’ll likely be able to see this one with just your eyes, even in a big city like Los Angeles.

[Related: Why we turn stars into constellations]

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Tick season is not only starting sooner—it’s becoming a year-round event. While April through September are usually the most active months, the pesky eight-legged parasites are biting people and animals much earlier in the year than expected. The increasing tick bites are leading to a rise in a variety of tick-borne diseases, including some that were previously uncommon.

One reason for the hike in tick-transmitted diseases like Lyme disease and babesiosis is because humans are expanding towns and cities into previously forested areas. Andrew Handel, a pediatric infectious disease specialist in Stony Brook Medicine, says cutting down forests creates an edge habitat—when one habitat type meets another—which presents more opportunity for common tick hosts such as deer and mice to interact with humans. 

[Related: A guide to the tick species every American should know]

Climate change is another culprit. Changes in rain and temperature have morphed regions with low rates of tick-borne diseases into a more palatable place for the parasites to live. What’s more, warmer conditions are getting ticks to wake up earlier from their winter sleep and have more time to bite nearby mammals. “As we see more mild winters, we’re absolutely going to see more tick-borne diseases,” says Handel.

The best thing to do is to stay aware of how ticks are circulating in your area. Even if you don’t live in the Northeast, you may be at risk for other tick-borne diseases. Knowing what to watch out for in spring, summer, and even other seasons can help treat and potentially prevent future tick bites—and the diseases that follow.

Babesiosis

Babesiosis is a parasitic infection transmitted by the bite of deer ticks (also known as black-legged ticks). These ticks are about the size of a poppy seed and found on small mammals like the white-footed mice living in the Northeast and upper Midwest. Minnesota and Wisconsin are two Midwestern states with endemic transmission of babesiosis.

Once the Babesia parasite enters the human body, it targets red blood cells. The parasites infect and destroy red blood cells by forcing their cell membrane to break open. A tremendous loss of red blood cells can, over time, cause hemolytic anemia. “It’s actually the same way that malaria works, and is why it’s called ‘the malaria of the Northeast,’” says Handel.

Babesiosis is treatable. Your doctor would prescribe a seven- to 10-day course of antibiotics if you are severely ill. Some people are at a higher risk of complications from anemia—people who are immunocompromised, those without a spleen, and newborn babies—and may need to get blood transfusions or other supportive care.

Lyme disease

Lyme disease is also spread through deer ticks. “These ticks carry and spread multiple diseases,” explains Chad Cross, a researcher at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas who studies parasites and vector-borne diseases. “If you are bitten by one, there’s always the possibility of being infected by more than one disease agent at the same time.”

While the CDC estimate shows 476,000 Lyme disease cases in the US each year, Cross states there are “at least 10 times more cases of Lyme disease than are actually reported” to the department. One reason for the discrepancy is that most cases are asymptomatic. When people do show symptoms, the fatigue and chills they exhibit can be mistaken for another condition. If left untreated, there is a risk of developing neurological problems such as facial paralysis and nerve damage to the limbs. Chronic lyme can lead to a host of persistent issues, too, many of which are still less understood. 

Most early Lyme disease cases are curable with a two- to four-week regimen of oral antibiotics such as doxycycline and amoxicillin. However, some patients may continue to experience pain, fatigue, and concentration issues six months after treatment. 

Anaplasmosis

Anaplasmosis manifests as a flu-like illness in humans. The bacterium is present in deer ticks in the Northeast and Midwestern US. The Western blacklegged tick, most prevalent around the coast of California, Oregon, and Washington, can also spread the pathogen. There has been an upward trend of anaplasmosis cases from 348 cases in 2000 to 5,655 cases in 2019.

Similar to Lyme disease, people who develop anaplasmosis develop nonspecific symptoms such as fever and muscle aches. If left untreated, it may turn fatal with some developing severe bleeding problems and organ failure. Handel says doxycycline is the most effective treatment option.

Powassan virus infection

Three tick species carry the Powassan virus: the groundhog tick, the squirrel tick, and the deer tick. Of those, the deer tick is the one that often bites and infects humans. Nearly all cases of this rare virus have occurred in the Northeast and Great Lakes region.

The virus causes mild symptoms such as headache, vomiting, and fever. By the time a diagnosis is made, Handel says about half of the patients present some type of neurologic deficit. People may also continue to show neurological problems, such as chronic headaches and memory problems after recovery.

Because there are only about 20 to 30 cases a year, Handel says there’s not a lot of medical research on how to treat it. There is no cure or antivirals to treat Powassan virus. Instead, infected individuals are given fluids, over-the-counter medications, and other supportive care to ease symptoms while the immune system fights off the infection.

Rocky Mountain spotted fever

There are two main ticks responsible for spreading rocky mountain spotted fever: the Rocky Mountain wood tick and the American dog tick. Cross says the American dog tick is very common out East while the Rocky Mountain wood tick is found in the West. Despite its name, Cross says Rocky Mountain spotted fever is being found more in the East and South than in the actual Rocky Mountain region. The less-common brown dog tick has also caused several cases along the US-Mexico border. The disease is part of a larger class of illnesses that strike thousands of people in the states each year.

The most noticeable sign is a rash that looks like red splotches or pinpoint dots in the first three days after getting bit. If treated with either doxycycline or an antibacterial agent within the first one to four days, the symptoms won’t worsen. Otherwise, the disease can be fatal. After a week, Cross says that people can develop swelling in the brain, life-threatening respiratory problems, and a coma-like state. Those who recover from severe illness may be left with permanent disability, such as paralysis or amputation of limbs.

Alpha-gal syndrome

A bite from the lone star tick can make you allergic to red meat for life. The unusual condition takes root when someone becomes highly sensitive to a sugar molecule called alpha-gal that’s found in most mammals. People who develop the allergy cannot eat red meat (fish and birds are safe to consume) or mammal-based products like dairy and gelatin. They may also be restricted in using certain medication such as heparin, which uses pig intestines. An allergic reaction can range from hives and nausea to more life-threatening reactions like anaphylactic shock.

Alpha-gal syndrome has been a rare but increasing tick-borne condition. In 2009, there were only 24 alpha-gal cases reported in the US. By 2021, the number was estimated to be around 34,000. While saliva from the lone star tick seems to trigger the mammalian allergy, deer tick bites are suspected of also causing it. According to the CDC, lone star ticks have concentrated in large numbers across the country. They are found in the southeastern, eastern, and south-central US states extending from Maine to central Texas and Oklahoma. 

There is no cure for alpha-gal syndrome. Instead, people need to learn to avoid certain foods and mammal-based products. Symptoms are managed using antihistamines and corticosteroids.

Reduce your chances of tick infections

These days, ticks are a threat across most of the US and in practically every season. Experts warn that cases will only continue to rise as ticks expand to previously uninhabitable areas. 

[Related: Climate change could introduce humans to thousands of new viruses]

Your best bet at avoiding tick-borne diseases is to keep the pests off your body. Rather than staying indoors for the rest of your life, both experts recommend spraying tick and mosquito repellant. “DEET is what we usually recommend at 20 to 30 percent,” says Handel. If you’re going to be hiking or spending a lot of time outside, learn how to handle an insecticide called permethrin. Handel advises leaving your clothes overnight in the solution to kill any insect on contact. The repellency lasts for up to 10 washes. But make sure to only use it on your clothes or gear—it’s not meant to be sprayed directly on human skin.

Remember, you can pick up ticks even if you’re not an avid hiker or camper. Ticks tend to live on tall grass, meaning they might climb on you at the park or even on your own property. Avoid rubbing up on any tall grass and keep to the middle when walking down a path. Wearing long sleeves and tucking your pants inside your socks further prevents any openings for the pests to crawl into if they latch on your clothes. 

Once you get home, immediately wash your clothes in high heat and perform a tick check for any stragglers. If you take your pet outdoors (even if it’s just the yard), you’ll want to check them daily for ticks as well. There are also topical medications that you or a vet can apply to your pet to control for any external parasites. If you or any members of your household are feeling unwell, always let your doctor know that you’ve been in wooded areas or places with high tick circulation.

“These tick-borne diseases have been around for a long time and they’re going to become more common over time,” says Handel. “But by following these steps you can keep yourself safe and still enjoying the outdoors without having to have too much anxiety about catching one of these infections.”

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Maintaining a clean dryer vent is an underappreciated household task. Not only will ensuring smooth airflow between your machine and the great outdoors help your clothes dry faster, but it will also reduce your fire risk. Trust us: a couple hours of your time (at most) is a small price to pay for avoiding a lint-fueled blaze.

When to clean your dryer vent

Guidance varies on how often you need to clear out the ol’ dust pipes, but most recommendations fall between every three months and at least once a year. You’ll probably need to do it more if you dry lots of laundry, and less if you live alone.

But if your clothes are taking increasingly longer to dry, your machine gets surprisingly hot to the touch, or (red alert) you notice a burning smell when the dryer is on, you should clean the vent and ducts immediately. There are about 3,000 dryer fires each year and neglected cleanings are the leading cause, the US Fire Administration says.

What you’ll need

At minimum, you’ll need a vacuum with a hose or otherwise tubular attachment. Depending on the length of your dryer duct, your desired cleanliness level, and how everything is connected, you may also want a long-handled brush, a face covering, a power drill, and/or a screwdriver.

How to clean a dryer vent

1. Unplug your dryer. Disconnecting the power supply should be the first thing you do when working on any electrical appliance, and your dryer is no different. If you have a gas-fueled machine, find the supply line and turn the gas off too.

2. Locate both ends of the dryer vent. This should be relatively easy: one end is at the back of your dryer and the other is on the outside of your home.

• Note: If you live in multi-family housing, you may not have access to the exit vent, so check with your property manager or landlord to see if they or you are responsible for cleaning the vent.

3. Remove your exterior vent cover. This cover prevents animals and debris from entering your home, and taking it off will make cleaning easier. It may be fastened with screws or it might slip on and off.

4. Move your dryer away from the wall. Give yourself enough space to access the vent connection in the back so you don’t bend or damage the ducts. If you have a gas line, be extremely careful not to bend or break it. You absolutely do not want a gas leak.

5. Disconnect the duct from the back of your dryer. Fasteners vary, so you may see tape, a screw-tightened steel hose clamp, or some kind of clip. When your machine is free of all restraints (except for any a gas connection), you can move it to wherever is comfortable for the rest of the job. 

6. Clean the dryer. If you haven’t done so already, take the lint trap out and clean it. You should be doing this after every load anyway—it’ll reduce the amount of lint that makes it into your duct, keeping it cleaner for longer. Then brush and vacuum out the lint trap area. Next, use your brush and vacuum to clean out the vent in the back of the dryer.

7. Disconnect the duct where it enters your wall. You might not be able to do this, but if you can, it will make cleaning easier. It likely connects to the outside-bound ductwork the same way it fastened to the back of your dryer.

• Pro tip: If one end of your dryer duct is higher than the other, clean from that side if possible. This will ensure that debris does not fall onto you while you work, and tumbling dirt might loosen up other grime as it falls.
• Note: If you’ve been cleaning your lint trap or have a short distance between your dryer and the outside, you might not have to do much, but this can also be a dirty job. Flexible ducts, for example, are more likely to bend and clog.

9. Clean up. Vacuum or sweep up any dust and debris that’s on the floor or piled up outside where the vent exits the house. Any lint left behind the dryer may be sucked into the machine when it turns on. If you removed your exterior vent cover, don’t forget to put it back on—you don’t want a bird or small mammal moving into your dryer duct.

10. Reconnect your dryer. As you put everything back together, make sure nothing got damaged during the cleaning process. Put it back in place, plug it in, and (if necessary) turn the gas back on.

• Pro tip: If you’re taping your duct, use foil tape instead of standard duct tape. Foil tape won’t dry up and fall off.
• Warning: Do not fasten ducts with screws or other sharp fasteners. They can puncture the ductwork, causing leaks and catching lint.

11. Test the dryer. To ensure there are no air leaks and your setup works smoothly, run the empty dryer for about 15 minutes on a low setting.

How to prevent lint buildup

Future cleanings will be easier and your dryer will work better if you make it hard for lint to build up in the first place.

• Clean the lint trap. We mentioned this above, but it bears repeating: make sure this removable screen is clear of lint before and after every load. Dryer sheet residue can also get stuck in the mesh, so try putting some water on it. If it doesn’t flow through, clean it with a brush and warm soapy water, then dry it with a towel.
• Regularly clean around your dryer. Simply put, the less dust your machine can suck up from its environment, the better.
• Hang heavier items out to dry. The heavier your dryer load, the harder your machine works. Stick that bulky duvet cover outside if you can, and your machine will thank you. You can also build yourself a handy wall-mounted drying rack if you’re feeling ambitious.
• Consider replacing your duct. Because flexible dryer ducts are more likely to clog than solid metal ones, they are also more fire-prone. They may also be against building code in your area. If you have one, check with your local building code office to see if it’s OK. Even if it is, straight ducts are easier to clean.

The post How to clean your dryer vent so it doesn’t catch on fire appeared first on Popular Science.

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This year, the Great Plains, Florida, and the Carolinas are expected to be the worst areas of the US for people with allergies, according to a report by the nonprofit Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America. Outside these regions, Scranton, Pennsylvania, made the list at No. 3, and Rochester, New York, at No. 20. But as anyone with allergies knows—you can suffer anywhere.

Fortunately, there are several kinds of allergy medications that can tame symptoms. But, it’s important to know the differences among the many options to find out when and how long you should take them. Allergy experts have a few tips to keep in mind while bracing for the start of allergy season. 

There are two main categories of antihistamines, says Eric Macy, an allergist-immunologist at Kaiser Permanente in San Diego. In addition to their allergy-fighting effects, “first-generation” antihistamines such as Benadryl can cause drowsiness and coordination problems. They belong to a class of drugs called anticholinergics whose long-term use may increase the risk of dementia.

[Related: Does taking allergy medication make my allergies worse?]

“The first-generation antihistamines have more cognitive or brain-related effects than the second generation do, so it’s not wise to take that every day,” says Sai R. Nimmagadda, an allergist-immunologist at Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine and Lurie Children’s Hospital of Chicago. 

Newer “second-generation” antihistamines including Claritin, Zyrtec, and Allegra are generally safe to use regularly. However, Nimmagadda says, some people find that a given antihistamine becomes less effective over time. Rather than increasing the dose, he recommends switching to a different antihistamine. “I tell my patients to alternate the antihistamine therapies every three to six months if they find they have become tolerant to a particular medication,” Nimmagadda says.

Start using nasal spray before the pollen onslaught

Antihistamines are very effective against sneezing, itchy eyes, runny noses, and hives, but they don’t help very much with congestion, Macy says. However, corticosteroid nasal sprays like Flonase treat stuffiness as well as other allergy symptoms. They contain lab-made versions of naturally occuring hormones that calm inflammation.

Corticosteroids can be used daily without losing their edge, Nimmagadda says. “The only thing is that with intranasal steroids it’s important to start them early in the season,” he says. 

If you wait until your immune system goes to work against that dreaded pollen and your symptoms flare up, corticosteroids won’t work as well. Nimmagadda likens it to fighting a blaze before it gets out of hand. “If you have a small fire, it’s easier to put out with a garden hose,” he says. “If you have a large fire, when you try to use a garden hose it’s not going to work very well.”

An even simpler remedy is to use saline (aka salt water) washes to flush mucus and debris from your nasal passages. These solutions can be purchased at the pharmacy or made at home—and using them will likely cut down on the amount of allergy medications you need to keep your symptoms in check, Nimmagadda says.

“The cheapest and best treatment you can do is to wash your nose of all the pollen allergens every morning and night,” he says. “One of the mainstays of my treatment regimens is the saline rinses.” 

[Related: How to tell seasonal allergies from COVID-19 symptoms]

Another thing to keep in mind, Macy says, is that if you’re experiencing congestion and sinus pressure without other symptoms like itching and sneezing, it’s probably not caused by allergies. Other treatable conditions including migraines, infections, and nasal polyps, may actually be to blame. 

Check in with your doctor

If you’re dealing with nasal symptoms year-round, Macy advises, it’s a good idea to visit a doctor and discuss more effective treatment options.

“Basically it comes down to: See an allergist, figure out what the cause of the problem is, and get it dealt with [rather] than taking antihistamines to paint over rust,” he says. 

Immunotherapy treatments—allergy shots and drops—decrease a person’s sensitivity to pollen, dust mites, and other irritants. They work by exposing the immune system to gradually increasing doses of the allergen and can provide long-term relief, Nimmagadda says. 

The post The right way to use seasonal allergy medications appeared first on Popular Science.

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I was 8 years old when I first learned the term “goose egg” can be used to identify more than an unhatched gosling. It can also describe the welt that develops after the goose that laid those eggs chases you away from its nest and bites you squarely on the meaty part of your behind.

After this educational experience, I was extra cautious around this goose (it lived by my grandparents’ pond), but did not realize I had escaped relatively unscathed. Unbeknownst to me, every spring brings fresh reports of people being attacked by what would appear to be angry geese. Those attacks often result in bruises, cuts, concussions, and stitches, many of which are far more serious than a welt on the backside.

Fortunately, there have been no documented cases of a goose killing a human in the US, but the creatures still inspire fear—or at least caution—in the hearts of many. There’s a reason cultures around the world have used geese in place of guard dogs.

But if you’d prefer to avoid being chased by a large bird as you stroll around the neighborhood park, follow this advice the next time you try to walk past a goose.

Why geese attack

Geese, like other animals, aren’t naturally aggressive—at least as humans generally define the word. These birds aren’t out to get upright bipeds; they have no particular vendetta that makes them want to bite soft young flesh or beat cyclists with their wings. Still, the animals will chase down just about anything: children, adults, bicycles, even cars, and frequently knock humans and other predators to the ground in impressive feats of agility and strength.

But when a goose lashes out, it’s not because it’s angry or mean. “Geese are typically only defensive when they have a nest they’re protecting or are defending their young,” says Vanessa A. Williams, a wildlife biologist and animal behaviorist who works with Wild Goose Chase, an Illinois-based company that specializes in wild bird management. “And they’ll attack anything they see as a threat to their nest or their babies.”

[Related: How birds of a feather flock together]

That’s because geese, unlike ducks, are monogamous—they mate for life and work with their partner to take care of their nest and babies. That means that while the female is incubating, the male is standing guard, ready to defend the nest and protect his mate. After the goslings hatch, he will fight to protect his whole brood.

If you look at the data, you’ll see most adverse human-goose encounters occur almost exclusively in the spring when nesting season begins and stop entirely by fall when goslings are fully mobile, WIlliams says.

Although goose attacks occasionally occur for other reasons, like if a goose or its mate is injured, this is rare, you can reduce your chances of getting rushed by one of these birds by simply staying away from their young and places you know they’re nesting.

How geese attack

Anyone who’s worried about getting chomped by a goose bill lined with tooth-like cartilage should know that according to Williams, my childhood encounter isn’t the norm. Geese rarely bite as a defensive strategy. Instead, they charge, using their strong wings as weapons.

I hear you: Bird wings may not seem all that threatening. After all, like most other birds that fly, the bones in goose wings are hollow. But because geese can weigh up to 25 pounds, the muscles in those wings are incredibly strong. They have to be to lift such a heavy bird into the air and carry it hundreds of miles at a time during migration.

So you really don’t want to be pummeled by those wings—they can quickly knock down a full-grown adult and cause scrapes, stitches, even broken bones. All of these injuries have been reported after goose assaults.

How to know when you might get attacked by a goose

But geese rarely go directly into blitz mode. They’ll warn you of impending doom first. If you get too close, they’ll hiss. Continue to approach and they’ll start honking, too. If you still haven’t left, they will spread their wings and charge. “If they hit you with one of those wings, it’s going to hurt,” Williams warns.

Fortunately, those initial warnings often lead to little more than a bluff charge as long as you respond by vacating the area as soon as possible. But how you do so matters.

Here’s what Williams advises: When a goose first lets you know you’re not welcome, start backing away—not slowly, but don’t run. If the animal stands down, you’re likely in the clear. If not, make yourself look large and menacing by holding your hands over your head or waving your backpack in the air. If you’re wearing a jacket, unzip it and hold it open, flapping the sides like wings. Keep facing the goose, because as long as you do, the animal will likely perceive you as a threat and do little more than bluff charge.

Whatever you do, Williams implores, don’t turn your back on the bird while it’s charging. You’ll make yourself an easy target, the goose may decide it’s safe to attack, and you might find yourself on the ground under a barrage of wings.

Instead, she says to continue backing away until the bird stops following you. When it does, you can turn around, but keep an eye on the goose to make sure it leaves you alone for good.

How to avoid an encounter with a defensive goose

If you’d rather avoid an encounter altogether—and who wouldn’t—the first rule of sharing space with wild animals is to keep your distance. How much depends on the bird. According to Williams, some geese will flee their nest immediately while others will start to feel threatened when you’re as far as 50 yards from them. So keep plenty of distance between yourself and geese, and the sooner you can create space between you and them, the better. And just generally be alert and listen for hissing.

The post Read this if you’re too scared to walk past a goose appeared first on Popular Science.

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This article was originally published on Saveur.

Eating disorders run in my family. Recently, a cousin died of one. It wasn’t just how much he ate but what: cola, chips, and candy round the clock. He basically snacked himself to death on a diet that led to heart disease, diabetes, and other complications. One reason he might have made unhealthy food choices is counterintuitive: He couldn’t stay full. “Food that is mainly carbohydrates or high in sugar is palatable. It goes down easily. It’s lower in volume, or water content, so you can eat a lot before your stomach expands,” explains Cara Harbstreet, a dietitian and the founder of Street Smart Nutrition. “But it doesn’t carry the fiber or other things that contribute to fullness and slow down eating.” 

You know that stuffed feeling after polishing off a steak or a bowl of pea soup? Experts call it satiety. In 1995, Australian nutritionists devised a satiety index to track which foods made us feel fullest. Feeding subjects different foods and monitoring their hunger afterward, the researchers found foods with the lowest satiety were carb-and-sugar bombs. These are delicious, but their dopamine rewards amount to empty calories. 

Foods with high satiety—those that keep you fullest the longest—are “high-thermic,” says food scientist Dr. Taylor C. Wallace, meaning that “muscles in the stomach and intestines take a lot of energy to break them down.” Chief among high-thermic foods is protein. “The body spends almost 30 percent of the calories it takes in from a protein trying to digest it.” 

After protein on the high-thermic scale, there’s fat, which slows the body’s absorption of carbohydrates. Anyone who loves toast slathered in butter knows how fat carries flavor, which begets satiety and satisfaction. Then comes fiber—the roughage that makes whole grains, fruit, vegetables, and legumes harder (in a good way) to digest. High-fiber foods often contain lots of water, which further fills your belly. 

That’s the gist of satiety: There are foods that take their time in your gut, and foods that don’t. “Generally, whole foods make you feel full longer than processed ones,” says dietitian nutritionist Kylene Bogden, a dietitian and functional sports nutrition expert who works with professional athletes. 

But every expert I spoke with cautioned against using the satiety index as a diet plan. Diets, they say, don’t work. “Clinical studies show minimal, if any, effect,” Wallace notes. And the satiety index has only been used in a limited way in labs; it hasn’t been applied to a broad study of actual, everyday behavior, where its efficacy can really be tested.

Still, the concept of satiety is useful. “If you eat a doughnut, and your brain’s happy, you can understand why your stomach still wants a meal. If you eat fish and vegetables, and your body is happy, you know why your brain still wants the doughnut,” says Ariane Resnick, a special-diet chef and nutritionist whose clients have included Gwyneth Paltrow and P!nk. 

Makes sense to me. In a world where celebrities are clamoring for weight-loss short-cuts like taking Ozempic and other diabetes drugs to suppress their appetites, and where others, like my cousin, refuse to take care of their diabetes and go for broke on unhealthful foods, paying attention to fullness seems like a sober and balanced approach to eating. The pros I spoke with have pointers for thinking about the satiety index. 

Don’t mistake satiety for healthfulness

“You could eat a Wendy’s triple cheeseburger without the bun, and that’s high satiety, but it’s not healthy,” says Wallace. “You’ll see weight loss, but did you raise your bad cholesterol or give yourself hypertension?” Satiety can, however, help avoid the pitfalls of calorie counting. “You could starve yourself slamming low-cal Ritz Cracker packs that spike your blood sugar level. Then you’re hungry, can’t lose weight, and have no energy,” says Bogden. “Foods that are slower to digest keep blood sugar more stable.”

Go for satisfaction

Resnick isn’t a fan of steamed vegetables. “Roasted under a chicken or stir fried, vegetables are more appealing,” she says. If you agree with her, then you’re more inclined to eat your veggies with some fat on them. As it turns out, some vitamins are fat soluble; your body can’t access them unless the veggies are glistening in chicken drippings. “So think about what gives you satisfaction as well as nutrition. We do better listening to our bodies than to ideology.”

Diversify your plate

Protein, fat, and fiber: Satiety requires all three. “If one is missing, that leads to hunger,” Harbstreet explains. “You end up dissatisfied and might rummage around for something else to munch on.” That means combining colors, textures, and flavors at every meal as much as possible. 

Resist dogma

“You’ll probably need more than fish and vegetables because, typically, those foods don’t give you the most joy and satisfaction, as they’re not full of sugar, salt, or fat, which are emotional triggers,” says Resnick. “So add a carbohydrate if you like.” If refined carbs (like white bread or pasta) make you happy, start there, then give less-refined carbs (like brown rice and pulses) a try. 

Be proactive

Fully eliminating low-satiety foods is impossible. We aren’t robots, after all. Rather than abstinence, Harbstreet recommends a measured, mindful approach: “If you’re going to a birthday party, be strategic. Have a balanced meal beforehand, then go ahead and eat some cake.” It’s not about hard rights and wrongs. Make your choices on a “cake-by-cake” basis.

Write your own story

Get to know yourself through your eating. “Start with what you normally eat and keep a journal of how you’re feeling, and how full you are, 30 minutes, one hour, and two hours from eating,” suggests Bogden. Did your energy dip? Do you want to eat more? “Then gravitate to higher satiety foods, and journal again.” If journaling is dredging up bad feelings, go see a professional who can help you use satiety and other tools in a way that works for your mind and body. “None are the be-all, end-all,” says Resnick. “Every tool is something to consider to find what’s best for you.”

The post How to feel full just by eating good food appeared first on Popular Science.

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This article was originally published on The Drive.

When it’s your decision to do so, sliding across the pavement like slippery socks on a vinyl floor is an adrenaline-spiking thrill unlike any other. When it’s not your decision to do so, however, sliding across the pavement is a fear-instilling event that will leave you questioning why you’re waiting to take that bucket-list trip to the Grand Canyon.

Scary skids are significantly more likely when dealing with precipitation, but it doesn’t have to be sleet, snow, or ice. Regular plain rain can be just as dangerous if the evil stars align and your car begins to hydroplane. 

Hydroplaning is covered in regulatory driving tests, but it’s not something you fully understand until you experience it. It’s impossible to completely avoid it for your entire life, so the only thing you can do is prepare yourself for when it occurs. The Drive’s editors have gathered a guide to explain what hydroplaning is, when and why it occurs, and how to handle yourself when lightning does strike. Get your notebook and learn something new below.

What is hydroplaning?

Hydroplaning, also referred to as aquaplaning, is when water, sometimes mixed with other contaminants, gets underneath an automobile’s tires’ contact patches and separates the tires and vehicle from the road surface. The car is then technically riding on slippery wetness rather than the grippy road because the tires cannot displace the water fast enough.

When does hydroplaning happen?

Hydroplaning occurs when the amount of water on the road overwhelms the tires’ abilities to remove water from underneath the tire through the tire tread grooves. 

This doesn’t necessarily mean it only happens when there’s a massive amount of precipitation raining down from the sky. Depending on how bald your tires are or how underinflated they are, it could even happen on a slippery road surface during a light rain.

Hydroplaning is also more likely to occur at higher speeds. 

Why does hydroplaning happen?

Hydroplaning occurs when the amount of water on the road overwhelms the tires’ abilities to remove water from underneath the tire through the tire tread grooves. 

This doesn’t necessarily mean it only happens when there’s a massive amount of precipitation raining down from the sky. Depending on how bald your tires are or how underinflated they are, it could even happen on a slippery road surface during a light rain.

Hydroplaning is also more likely to occur at higher speeds. 

Where does hydroplaning happen?

Technically, hydroplaning can occur anywhere there is smooth pavement or a surface that can trap water underneath the tires. This is especially true on roads with standing water like runoff or puddles. Because of the speed, it might be more likely to experience hydroplaning on a highway.

How to protect against hydroplaning

There are precautions you can take that will help prevent hydroplaning. 

• Make sure your tires are appropriate for the season and conditions. Certain designs have extra sipes to clear water.
• Make sure the tire is properly inflated.
• Make sure the tire has enough tread.
• Follow a strict tire rotation schedule.
• Avoid sudden movements like quick turns or hard acceleration or braking.
• Limit your speeds during rain.
• Don’t use cruise control in slippery conditions.
• Avoid puddles.
• If a road is crowned, the water will puddle easier on the outside of the road, so stick inside.

How to react when you’re hydroplaning

*French Montana voice* Don’t panic. 

1. Resist your immediate urge to overreact.
2. Let off the gas.
3. Firmly hold the steering wheel. 
4. If you’re sliding straight ahead, keep the wheel straight. If you’re sliding toward the edge of a turn, turn the wheel slightly in the direction the car is moving. Just be aware that the direction of your tires will matter when you regain traction, so you don’t want them all twisted up.
5. Ride it out until you feel the car regain traction.
6. Pull over, take a deep breath and calm down before you get back on the road.

The post A driver’s guide to hydroplaning and how to handle it appeared first on Popular Science.

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The number of colorectal cancer diagnoses has nearly doubled in people younger than 55, a recent report from the American Cancer Society (ACS) warns. 

Colon cancer cases rose across the country from 11 percent in 1995 to 20 percent in 2019 people younger than 55.  There was an 8-percent jump in advanced cases across all ages since the mid-2000s. Most young people who were diagnosed had late-stage tumors. 

While the statistics are alarming, it doesn’t come as a surprise to doctors in the field who’ve noticed a trend in younger patients over the past few years. “This data is confirmation of that clinical observation,” says Deborah Nagle, the chief of colon and rectal surgery at Stony Brook Medicine in New York. 

Colonoscopies remain the gold standard for screening colorectal cancer. However, some might find the preparation, recovery, and procedure itself uncomfortable and time-consuming. Fortunately, there are other less invasive tools for detecting colon cancer, some of which you can access in the comfort of your own home. 

The reasons behind rising colon cancer rates

Why do some people get colon cancer over others? There’s “no smoking gun,” says Samir Gupta, a gastroenterologist and professor of medicine at the University of California, San Diego. Several causes factor into an individual’s overall risk.

One is antibiotics: The drugs might contribute to colorectal cancer by changing the composition of the gut microbiome that allows “bad” bacteria—those that lower a person’s immunity, create cancer-promoting metabolites, and damage DNA—to flourish. A 2021 study in Sweden found adults treated with antibiotics had a 17 percent risk of cancer in the ascending colon. The more antibiotics people took, the greater the risk. Gupta says there could also be a potential link between antibiotic exposure during infancy and future colorectal cancer. 

Obesity is another contributor for different kinds of cancers, including early-stage colorectal. Nagle says the obesity rate has significantly increased in the US in the past few decades. Nearly 42 percent of Americans have a BMI of or above 30. Excess body fat promotes inflammation and drives up the production of insulin and hormones, and in turn, can increase the number of cells that can lead to cancer. Additionally, inflammation from fat itself sometimes damages healthy cells and leads to cancerous mutations in cellular DNA.

While less studied in humans, chemicals put in food have also been seen as a potential cancer contributor. Dietary emulsifiers, which are usually added to processed foods to increase their shelf life, have been linked to colon cancer through animal research. In one 2022 study, titanium dioxide, a common food coloring in candies and baking products, helped promote colorectal tumor development in lab mice.

[Related: Two decades-long studies link ultra-processed foods to cancer and premature death]

Oncology researchers are also interested in looking at how big of a role genetics play in colorectal cancer formation. One in five people diagnosed with colorectal cancer carry a genetic mutation associated with tumor development.

Prevention is possible, however. At 91 percent, colorectal cancer has one of the highest five-year survival rates. The key is catching it in time. Both Gupta and Nagle recommend getting a colonoscopy screening to detect any early signs of cancer. A follow-up study in Europe last year showed that people who got a colonoscopy reduced their risk of colorectal cancer by 31 percent and the risk of dying from said disease by 50 percent.

When to get a colonoscopy

While there are standard guidelines for when you should get a colonoscopy, both experts urge anyone who experiences persistent rectal bleeding and changes in bowel habits to get immediate medical attention.

If you have no symptoms and no family history of colorectal cancer, the ACS recommends routine screenings starting at age 45. Those considered at high risk of colorectal cancer—family history of disease, history of radiation in the abdomen area to treat prior cancer, inflammatory bowel syndrome—are encouraged to get a screening before 45. 

People with Lynch syndrome, a hereditary condition that genetically predisposes a person to multiple types of cancer, are strongly urged to get a colonoscopy every one to two years starting in their early 20s or 2 to 5 years before the youngest case in the family.

Test your options

While colonoscopies are the go-to tool for colorectal screenings, says Nagle, they’re not all too popular among patients. The prep required for a colonoscopy—taking a laxative and adjusting your diet a few days before —can deter people. The procedure and recovery also takes up a huge chunk of time, which may not be doable for those who can’t take time off work. 

Stool-based tests like Cologuard offer an easier, at-home alternative. There’s no prep needed, and the results are generally accurate, though not on par with a colonoscopy. There are also fecal immunochemical tests (FIT) that look for hidden blood in your stool. This annual test can be done at home, though it is less accurate at detecting polyps smaller than 6 millimeters than colonoscopies.

A less invasive method some oncologists are turning to virtual colonoscopies. The procedure uses CT scans to create images of your large intestine to look for ulcers, polyps, and tumors.

[Related: First study of cancer-detecting blood test shows hopeful results]

There is ongoing research looking to improve screening results using a combination of these methods. Some involve using a person’s gut microbiome composition to identify the loss of certain “good” bacteria to predict their risk of precancerous tumors. Others include a multi-step screening process that still includes the recommended colonoscopy. A study from last spring suggests getting a colonoscopy after an at-home stool test; those who did not follow up were twice as likely to die from colorectal cancer.

“We have an opportunity to prevent some cancers from happening by doing the screenings,” says Gupta. “When people are diagnosed early, it’s more treatable.”

The post Colon cancer cases in younger generations are rising. When should you get screened? appeared first on Popular Science.

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Best overall		Super Sprouter Deluxe Propagation Kit		SEE IT	Germinate, sprout, and grow seedlings with this all-in-one seedling starter tray kit.
Best with dome		Gardzen 5-Set Garden Propogator Set		SEE IT	These five trays come with lids to lock in create humidity and encourage growth.
Best budget		Mhonniwa 180-Cell Seed Starter		SEE IT	Use this affordable value pack to sprout up to 180 seedlings.

When planning a garden, seedling starter trays are a smart way to get an early start on the growing season. Simply dropping some seeds into the garden often isn’t an effective way to ensure that the seeds will grow. In fact, planting seeds in an outdoor garden often leads to them being eaten by insects, rodents, and other pests. Instead, start your seeds in a safe, controlled starter tray that can be kept indoors until the seedlings are ready to be transplanted into the garden. The trays come with humidity domes, watering mats, and base trays to help improve the chances of your seeds germinating without putting them at risk of being eaten by scavengers. Keep reading to learn how to choose the best seedling starter trays for your next home grow.

• Best overall: Super Sprouter Deluxe Propagation Kit
• Best biodegradable: JOLLY GROW Seed Starter Peat Pots Kit
• Best with dome: Gardzen 5-Set Garden Propagator Set
• Best with watering mat: Burpee Seed Starter Tray
• Best budget: Mhonniwa 180-Cell Seed Starter Tray

How we chose the best seedling starter trays

My years of home gardening experience helped me understand what works and what doesn’t work regarding seed germination and seedling growth. This experience, combined with extensive research of more than 40 different products, is the basis for this selection. I concentrated on the material, dimensions, and capacity of the seedling starter trays.

There are several different materials used to make these trays, and each one has a different but equal benefit. I chose top products from each material category, including biodegradable, disposable plastic, and reusable plastic. I also took into consideration the dimensions as well as the capacity of the seedling starter trays to determine how many plants could be grown at one time without choking out nearby seedlings. Additionally, any product with extra features that improved the germination, sprouting, or growth period superior to similar products that lacked these added benefits got extra weight in making my selections.

The best seedling starter trays: Reviews & Recommendations

Whether you’re just getting started with planting, overseeing a kids’ project, establishing seedlings for a greenhouse, or have lots of garden tools ready to go, we’ve rounded up the best options for taking that first step.

Best overall: Super Sprouter Deluxe Propagation Kit

Super Sprouter

SEE IT

Why it made the cut: Use the built-in grow light and humidity dome to germinate, sprout, and grow plants efficiently.

Specs

• Capacity: Variable up to 72 cells
• Material: Reusable plastic
• Dimensions: 10 x 20 inches

Pros

• Comes with a grow light and humidity dome
• Reusable for multiple home grows
• The tray fits most standard inserts and plug trays

Cons

• Does not include a plug tray with individual cells

Our best overall pick can help ensure the seeds germinate and sprout quickly. The Super Sprouter Deluxe Propagation Kit has a humidity dome to help control the humidity level during germination. The seedling starter tray measures 10 inches by 20 inches, allowing it to be used with most standard inserts and plug trays. Though it should be noted that while this product can accommodate a tray with up to 72 cells, it does not come with a plug tray. Instead, the seedling starter set comprises a reusable plastic base tray to collect excess water, a humidity dome, and a grow light to provide even lighting to the plants.

The grow light is designed to sit in a track on top of the humidity dome, where it can shine down on the entire tray. This comprehensive kit is an excellent option for a beginner because it provides the user with all of the basic supplies to start growing their plants in the comfort of the kitchen, living room, den, or even the bedroom.

Best biodegradable: JOLLY GROW Seed Starter Peat Pots Kit

Jolly Grow

SEE IT

Why it made the cut: Ensure that the roots, stem, and leaves are undamaged by poor transplantation with this biodegradable starter tray that can be planted directly into the garden.

Specs

• Capacity: 50 cells
• Material: Biodegradable peat pots
• Dimensions: 10 x 4 inches

Pros

• Biodegradable cells are easy to transplant
• Environmentally friendly option for home gardening
• Five 10-cell trays with plastic plant markers/labels

Cons

• Water permeable
• Doesn’t come with a base tray

One of the main benefits of using a biodegradable seedling starter tray is that the seedlings do not need to be removed from the cells. This makes it simple to break apart the cells and plant them individually in the garden without worrying about damaging the seedling in an attempt to remove them from a plastic tray. Once the biodegradable peat cells are buried, they will begin to break down, and the roots of the seedlings will have no issue piercing through the peat walls and spreading into the soil.

The JOLLY GROW Seed Starter Peat Pots Kit comes with five trays that each have 10 cells for a total capacity of 50 cells. Each tray measures 4 inches by 10 inches and also includes plastic plant markers so that the cells can be labeled with the plant’s name. Remember that the biodegradable cells, while great for the environment, are water-permeable, so it’s advised to have a non-permeable base tray to collect excess water that drains from the soil.

Best with dome: Gardzen 5-Set Garden Propagator Set

Gardzen

SEE IT

Why it made the cut: Control the humidity level inside each of these five seedling starter trays using the included domes.

Specs

• Capacity: 200 cells
• Material: Reusable plastic
• Dimensions: 9 x 14.5 inches

Pros

• Five seedling starter trays with humidity domes
• Reusable for multiple home grows
• Uses seedling paper instead of soil

Cons

• Not biodegradable

In contrast to other seedling starter trays, the Gardzen 5-Set Garden Propagator Set does not require soil pods to help seeds germinate and sprout. Instead, these seedling starter trays consist of a seed tray with a drainage hold to prevent overwatering; a base tray for hydroponic gardening; and a humidity dome to encourage growth. You can also place the trays on a heating mat for extra warmth.

Each tray is made of reusable plastic and measures 9 inches by 14.5 inches. The set also comes with a dibber and a widger for easy planting. Each of the 40 cells is 1.4 inches square, which makes the trays ideal for early-season pepper and vine and smaller plants, such as cabbage, kale, and broccoli. (The company also makes 15-cell and 70-cell versions for different sizes of seedlings.)

Best with watering mat: Burpee Seed Starter Tray

Burpee

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Why it made the cut: The base tray and watering mat hold excess water until it’s needed for germination, sprouting, and growth.

Specs

• Capacity: 32 extra-large cells
• Material: Reusable plastic and thin, disposable plastic
• Dimensions: 10 x 20 inches

Pros

• Comes with a watering mat for automatic watering
• Extra-large cells for strong root systems
• Includes natural coconut fiber growing plugs

Cons

• Cell trays are made with thin, disposable plastic

While most seedling starter trays can include standard-sized cell trays, this Burpee Seed Starter Tray has two cell trays that each have 16 extra-large cells, making them ideal for plants with strong, deep root growth. The cell trays have drainage holes in the bottom. They can both sit within the 10- by 20-inch base tray, which doubles as a watering mat, allowing the seeds and seedlings to absorb water from the tray as necessary instead of oversaturating the soil.

This product also comes with 32 natural coconut fiber growing plugs so that users can start their next home grow as soon as they have the seeds for the coconut fiber growing medium. Use the included humidity dome to help accelerate germination, but remember that while the base tray and dome are made with reusable plastic, the cell trays are thin and disposable, so they may need to be replaced after two or more home grows.

Best budget: Mhonniwa 180-Cell Seed Starter Tray

Mhonniwa

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Why it made the cut: Germinate and sprout up to 180 seedlings with this biodegradable product.

Specs

• Capacity: 180 cells
• Material: Organic peat
• Dimensions: 6.5 x 4.7 inches

Pros

• Comes with tools and labels
• 15 trays
• Biodegradable

Cons

• One-size tray
• No dome

The Mhonniwa 180-Cell Seed Starter Tray is an impressive product, especially given the 180-cell capacity and the affordable price for this complete set. This seedling starter tray set includes 12 small trays that each measure 6.5 inches by 4.7 inches and have a capacity of 12 cells. Additionally, this set comes with two gardening tools to help with transplantation, as well as labels for the plants. If you don’t have good soil for a garden, check out our guide to the best raised beds.

Things to consider before buying seedling starter trays

In addition to the plants you wish to grow, here are some important factors to weigh before selecting the best seedling starter tray for your needs.

Tray capacity

The capacity of a seedling starter tray can range significantly—from a single-cell tray that can manage three to four seedlings to seedling trays with more than 40 cells. Consider the number of plants that you want to grow, the space necessary for these plants to germinate properly, and the space required for the seedlings to finish growing after being transplanted into individual pots or a garden. 

Remember that some plants also require larger cells because they tend to sprout dense roots that need more space to grow and expand. Before starting any gardening project, research the individual plant species to determine the specific needs of the plant. This foundation of knowledge will make it easier to decide on the best seedling starter tray capacity.

Material

At first thought, the material for a seedling starter tray seems like a trivial matter. After all, the tray is just used to hold the seedlings while they grow. However, these trays can be made of thick, reusable plastic; thin, disposable plastic; and even biodegradable peat pots that are specifically designed for planting directly into the garden without having to remove the seedlings.

Biodegradable trays are a popular option for people that have a hard time properly transplanting their seedlings, but these products rarely have the same capacity as plastic seedling starter trays. Choose a thick, reusable plastic starter tray if you are planning on regularly growing seedlings at home, but keep in mind that the tough plastic makes it more difficult to take the soil plug out of the tray cell during transplantation. On the other hand, it’s easier to remove the plugs from thin plastic starter tray cells, but these disposable products won’t typically last for more than one or two home grows.

Extra features

Despite the simplicity of seedling starter trays, they can actually come with several different added features that manufacturers have included to improve the product. These include a humidity dome, a base tray, a watering mat, and a heating mat.

Humidity domes are essentially clear plastic domes that are intended to cover the seeds and soil plugs to help maintain an ideal humidity level during the germination period. Base trays are commonly used to catch the excess water from seedling starter tray cells, reducing the chance of mold, mildew, and disease. Watering mats help to make the growing process easier. These mats are filled with water and sit underneath the seedling cells, allowing the plants to draw water from the mat at any point without oversaturating the soil. This is a basic form of hydroponics. Heating mats are rarely included with seedling starter tray sets, but they are a good accessory to help increase germination and growth rates.

FAQs

Final thoughts on the best seedling starter trays

• Best overall: Super Sprouter Deluxe Propagation Kit
• Best biodegradable: JOLLY GROW Seed Starter Peat Pots Kit
• Best with dome: FiGoal 4 Pack Sprout Tray with Cover
• Best with watering mat: Burpee Seed Starter Tray
• Best budget: Mhonniwa180-Cell Seed Starter Tray

Getting an early start on the growing season is a great idea. Equipped with a grow light and a humidity dome, the Super Sprouter Deluxe Propagation Kit is an excellent option. If you need a product with a greater seedling capacity, go with the affordable Mhonniwa 180-Cell Seed Starter Tray.

Why trust us

Popular Science started writing about technology more than 150 years ago. There was no such thing as “gadget writing” when we published our first issue in 1872, but if there was, our mission to demystify the world of innovation for everyday readers means we would have been all over it. Here in the present, PopSci is fully committed to helping readers navigate the increasingly intimidating array of devices on the market right now.

Our writers and editors have combined decades of experience covering and reviewing consumer electronics. We each have our own obsessive specialties—from high-end audio, to video games, to cameras, and beyond—but when we’re reviewing devices outside of our immediate wheelhouses, we do our best to seek out trustworthy voices and opinions to help guide people to the very best recommendations. We know we don’t know everything, but we’re excited to live through the analysis paralysis that internet shopping can spur so readers don’t have to.

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Menstruating is living in constant fear of ruining your best pair of underwear or making a spectacle of yourself the day you decide to wear white pants. And that’s only the least important reason to learn how to properly track your period. 

There are a lot of apps out there that promise to make your life easier in this regard, but you may not want to rely on them. Luckily, you can learn how to track your period without an app by using the good ol’ calendar method.

Menstrual cycles are highly susceptible to changes due to illness, lifestyle, and even stress levels. Add to that the fact that each body is different and the theoretical model goes out the window. 

Well, not entirely—the 28-day menstrual cycle is a good parameter to compare your own particular cycle to, and people have used it for decades to track their periods and detect any anomalies. 

How to manually track your period

The calendar method is more than just circling a day on your calendar and then circling another 28 days later. To fully understand not only how to track your period on paper but how you can make it work for you, you first need to understand how your cycle works. It may seem like a lot, but you’ll need to trust the process.

You can divide a menstrual cycle into two parts—the pre-ovulation stage or follicular phase, and the post-ovulation stage, or luteal phase. These two episodes are separated by ovulation, the main event in every cycle where the ovary releases an egg into the fallopian tube.

In the follicular phase, the egg matures in a follicle within the ovary. Once it’s ready, estrogen levels signal to the brain that it’s time for the egg’s debut in society, and the noggin responds by releasing luteinizing hormone to trigger ovulation. The egg is now free to try and fulfill its purpose.   

The empty follicle that remains in the ovary turns into the progesterone-releasing corpus luteum. This tiny structure is key to understanding your specific menstrual cycle because it’s one of the only elements in this whole process that mostly remains constant for all menstruating people. If the egg doesn’t find a companion to join it in the dance of life, the corpus luteum will die after 12 to 14 days, abruptly cutting the supply of progesterone and triggering the shedding of the uterine lining, also known as your period. 

Now that you understand how the menstrual cycle works, it’s time to learn how to track your period without an app, so go ahead and write down the first day of your cycle—you can use a digital or analog calendar, your planner, or even a piece of paper. Keep in mind that the first day is when you start with full-flow bleeding—spotting doesn’t count. 

Starting on the first day of your period, go back 14 days on your calendar. That’s your ovulation day—mark it down. Knowing how long it takes your body to ovulate will help you determine when you’ll be at your most fertile, a crucial piece of information that, depending on how you use it, will help you get pregnant or avoid it altogether. 

Finally, jot down details about each day of your period. Take note of the amount and color of your flow, plus any other symptoms such as tender breasts, backache, headaches, mood swings, high sex drive, and low energy. Tracking symptoms throughout the rest of your cycle will eventually allow you to find patterns that will help you project ovulation, pre-menstrual syndrome, and, of course, your period. 

The problem is that when it comes to your period, the only data that matters is yours—the periods of people in Asia, Europe, the next state, or even the house around the corner from yours, don’t say much about when your next period will come.  

[Related: How to make your period more eco-friendly]

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As a New Yorker, there’s a difference in whether it’s cold or “brick” outside. Cold weather is when you throw on a sweater before heading out. When it’s brick, you try to stay home as much as possible to avoid ending up like a human glacier. But the local lingo didn’t apply much this winter, with record-low snowfall and above-average temperatures across New York City.

A warm winter is more than just losing a few snow days. It’s knowing that the world will be dealing with more scorching heat waves and droughts, and natural disasters like the deadly flooding caused by Hurricane Ian in Florida and Cuba last year.

Climate change is only one of humanity’s long list of problems. This month we mark the third anniversary of the COVID pandemic, a disease that has killed millions worldwide and is becoming more chronic like the flu. On top of that, Turkey and Syria are still facing the aftershocks of a historically deadly earthquake, and soaring food prices from Russia’s invasion of Ukraine could worsen global hunger for years to come. 

[Related: How to manage your mental health as traumatic events pile up]

There seems to be no shortage of community-wide tragedies. Likewise, these events are taking a toll on people’s psyches. Whether conscious or subconscious, you might mourn a loss of safety and security, on top of the more obvious layers of sorrow. But these feelings can also help you be the change you need to move forward in this ever-evolving world.

Collective grief is both a shared and unique experience

Some tragedies, like a mass shooting or police brutality, resonate among an entire group of people. “Grief is a normal reaction to loss,” says Kriss Kevorkian, a thanatologist and founder of the counseling service, A Grieving World. “When it’s collective grief, we’re experiencing that on a larger scale with more people.”

Collective grief can take hold even if you don’t personally know the people directly affected. When the Uvlade school shooting occurred, there was a nationwide outpouring of anger and sorrow over the murders of the teachers and children. Violent events like these force you to rethink life and the safety of your family, says Kevorkian.

Younger generations have become the most vulnerable to collective grief, especially with environmental anxiety. Kevorkian says that government failure to stop climate change has caused children to become more helpless and apathetic. When young people like Greta Thunberg do speak out on climate change, they are mocked and subject to verbal abuse.

Your brain and body on grief

Grief doesn’t stay in one corner of your body—it consumes your entire being. You might feel more tired than usual from tossing and turning all night. Maybe you’ve lost your appetite or have trouble keeping food down. Research shows that the first few months of grief can affect your body’s immune system activity and increase your risk of blood clots.

When your mind is weighed down by sadness, anger, and loneliness, there is little space to focus on other matters. Having “grief brain” can make it feel like you’re in a fog. Everyday tasks such as watering the plants or taking out the trash become really challenging. As you try to process your loss, you might forget things like where you placed your keys or an important doctor’s appointment. 

Grief brain happens because your mind recognizes the stress and emotional trauma as a threat, triggering the entire body’s fight-or-flight response. Brain regions like the amygdala signal the alarm through stress hormones that elevate your heart rate and increase your blood pressure, upping your anxiety and panic to keep tabs on the stressor. 

When you don’t deal with the heavy emotion, your brain protects itself by going into constant survival mode. Believing it’s in danger, it allocates more energy and resources to fear centers like the amygdala. Your brain might also decide to escape the stressor by metaphorically running away. It might dissociate from daily happenings, for example, to give you a mental break from negative emotions. “Deciding how to approach your grief can foster healing as opposed to delaying it when we try to ignore or deny reality,” says Jasmine Cobb, a social worker specializing in grief and trauma at Visual Healing Therapeutic Services in Texas.

Consume your grief before it consumes you

The good news is that grief-related stress on the brain is reversible. Meditation and mindfulness can train you to focus on the present moment instead of reliving the past or dissociating from future threats. Going outside for a 30-minute walk instead of doom-scrolling or watching the news can help clear and calm the mind. Crying can also be a healthy release of stress as it releases feel-good hormones such as oxytocin and endorphins. 

There is no normal amount of time you’re supposed to grieve. You can spend months or years mourning, only for a news story or movie to trigger your pain all over again. “There are three words I really can’t stand, ‘get over it,’” says Kevorkian. “Grief never ends.” 

While time can help with the grieving process, it’s important that you’re actively working on your emotions and any unresolved issues related to the loss. Cobb says speaking with someone you can confide in is important, whether it’s a family friend, therapist, or a spiritual leader. There is also power in shared grief. People who have gone through a similar experience can help provide support in overcoming your grief. “Find your community who can hold a torch for you when you’re unable to do that for yourself,” advises Cobb.

Turning collective grief into collective action

Grief is one of life’s greatest teachers, says Kevorkian. It shows you how to live in the present and appreciate all that you have right now. Beyond acceptance, taking action can help you wrestle with some of the hopelessness you might feel when dealing with events out of your control, Kevorkian explains.

[Related: The biggest tool we have to fight climate anxiety is community]

One example of a group turning pain into lasting change is Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD). In 1980, 13-year-old Cari Lightner was killed by a drunk driver—a man who had just gotten out of jail two days after his fourth DUI arrest. For the next few years, Cari’s mother, Candace, used her daughter’s photo and story of her accident to raise awareness and change California traffic safety laws. Candace went on to form MADD, a political-advocacy group that gives other grieving parents the opportunity to feel like their tragedy was not in vain. 

“It’s easy for us to stay in bed under the covers and wallow in despair,” says Kevorkian. But finding the courage to take action can help you get out of your head and connect with others sharing similar distress. Hopefully, with time and work, the world will seem a little less bleak.

The post How to cope with collective grief—and even turn it into action appeared first on Popular Science.

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Those little bottles of travel-sized toiletries you bought before your last trip may be convenient, but they are an environmental nightmare. Most facilities are not properly equipped to recycle small plastic tubes, tubs, and anything with a pump, so they probably won’t. Only 9 percent of plastics get successfully recycled worldwide, and at least 14 million tons of what’s left ends up in the ocean every year, making up for 80 percent of marine debris. 

More sustainable alternatives to these miniatures include products like shampoo bars and toothpaste tablets, but they can be expensive and hard to find locally if you don’t live in a large city. 

Fortunately, putting together a zero-waste toiletry kit for your next getaway doesn’t have to be complicated or spendy, and there are plenty of strategies that won’t require you to buy a single thing. 

Instead of purchasing new vessels, take a moment to scan your surroundings and see what might suit the task at hand. For example, a tiny glass jam jar like the kind you might find at an upscale diner is the perfect size for a week’s worth of face wash. Likewise, a breath mint tin is an excellent place to store a bar of soap, and if you use a non-aerosol variety, you can refill empty hand sanitizer spray bottles with hair spray. Even your child’s empty paint pots with screw-on lids or used-up sample jars that came from beauty counters are practically designed to carry your bathroom products.

Ketti Wilhelm, the author of the sustainable travel blog Tilted Map, has a less conventional idea: contact lens cases. If you wear contacts, you probably have enough of these to last a lifetime, and she explains they hold just enough face lotion or toothpaste (in paste or tablet form) for a weekend trip.

Creativity is key: Any container will do, especially if it has a twist top or a lid that latches. If you think it might hold anything from half a bar of soap to a week’s worth of conditioner, wash the container thoroughly, sanitize the inside by spraying it with alcohol, and let it air dry. Then designate a box under the sink or in the bathroom where you can stash the bottles or jars until your next trip.

Instead of using disposable wipes in non-recyclable packaging, bring a washcloth and facial cleanser. Wilhelm likes to pack small bars of face soap, which she tucks into the pockets of a folded washcloth. This technique saves space but also negates the need for a soap container.

You can replace cotton balls and cotton rounds by cutting 3-by-3-inch squares out of a clean cotton T-shirt or sheets you’d like to retire. You can even cut larger swatches, fold them over several times and sew the edges to create a thicker pad. After every use, wash your pad with gentle soap in the sink, wring it as best you can, and let it air dry.

Just don’t fall into the trap of thinking you need separate cases, stands, and covers for items like razors to toothbrushes. 

“Ask, do you need extra things to go on top of your things?” Wilhelm says. “It’s just part of re-examining the mindset of excess consumption that we’re so conditioned to.” 

If your toiletry bag has a separate compartment that fits your toothbrush, skip the plastic brush cover. If you’re really afraid your razor is going to slice through something, place a large binder clip or folded piece of scrap mail held in place by a rubber band over the blade.

“Minimalism sounds scary to people, but taking just a small dose of that perspective and rethinking all the products you use can be really transformative,” Wilhelm posits. 

But reconsidering your routines and the products you use is a process. She advises that as you strive for a zero-waste toiletry kit, you start by changing or swapping one thing that feels easy and approachable—maybe a product you’re not in love with and don’t mind replacing. From there, rethink what to get next as you finish your products one by one.

Whether it’s collecting small jars and bottles to use on your next vacation or committing to not using the products in your hotel room, make sure to remember that every bit of waste you reduce makes an impact in the long run.

The post Travel more sustainably with a DIY zero-waste toiletry kit appeared first on Popular Science.

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YOU’RE WALKING through a forest. The soil is soft beneath your feet, and the sun is shining brightly through the dark green treetops. To your left, you see rotten logs with dense clusters of oyster mushrooms. On your right, a thick bundle of chanterelles sprouts from the leaf-littered floor. Farther off the beaten path are stout-looking porcinis, frequently with a colony of poisonous fly agarics nearby, and, maybe, a bunch of magic blue gyms—those might ruin your nature walk, though. 

The mushroom kingdom holds many shapes and secrets beyond those of the little white buttons and baby bellas found at the grocery store. Ethical foraging is one of the easiest and most valuable ways to incorporate an array of mushrooms into your life; to get started, you can join a mycology group or contact a local guide to learn how to harvest edible fungi safely and sustainably. 

But there are more creative ways to incorporate the power of mushrooms into your days. Fungi are a versatile and adaptable group, which is why they offer a range of benefits to a variety of people. They’re a multifaceted food source, providing fiber, protein, and other nutrients. They can be used to create dyes, build structures, or breed new strains of mushrooms. In essence, they’re really cool, and they’re inspiring biologists, artists, and engineers to develop practices that can make the world prosper. Here’s a mini-tour of what the flourishing field of mushrooming has to offer.

Shopping for mushrooms 

Head to the supplement aisle in any health food store, and you’re bound to find shelf space dedicated to the medicinal wonder of mushrooms. Research on fruit flies and mice shows that cordyceps, popular among consumers (and apocalyptic TV shows), has anti-cancer properties and possibly anti-aging effects, too. Reishi and turkey tail are coveted for their potential immune-stimulating effects, while lion’s mane may help soften dementia, according to a small pilot study.  

Most of these benefits have been investigated on animals or in test tubes, making it challenging to draw conclusions on human health. If you’re looking for guaranteed results, it’s better to grab fresh, whole mushrooms from the produce section than spend all your money on pills and potions. 

“Eating food is always safer and less expensive than using its supplemental form,” says Lori Chong, a registered dietitian at the Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center. With fungi, you should know which edible varieties are good to cook with. Reishi and turkey tail are not commonly used for culinary purposes because their tough texture and bitter taste make them unpalatable. On the other hand, lion’s mane, shiitake, enoki, and maitake make fine ingredients for a meal, each with its distinct flavors and properties. 

A steady intake of mushrooms can work wonders for our bodies. Eating 18 grams daily could reduce someone’s cancer risk by 45 percent, according to a scientific review of 17 observational studies. Using mushrooms to lessen meat consumption can also help reduce the risk of heart disease by lowering saturated fat in a diet—you can do this by mixing chewy stems and caps with ground meat. And they’re one of a few sources of ergothioneine, an amino acid with anti-inflammatory effects, according to several international medical papers. 

Getting them into your diet isn’t too difficult, says Chong. “Mushrooms make a great addition to any combination of stir-fried vegetables,” she explains. “They are easy to prep and quick to cook. Consider sautéing a package of mushrooms and keeping them in the refrigerator to add to an omelet, spaghetti sauce, sandwich, or salad.” 

Oh, and don’t eat them raw: Farmed mushrooms may contain agaritine, a toxic compound destroyed by heat during the cooking process. Research has found that certain store-bought varieties have less agaritine than freshly picked ones, but questions remain.

When shopping for whole mushrooms, make sure they’re firm to the touch, smooth, and dry on the surface. You don’t want any that look dried out, feel slimy, have big spots of discoloration, or show wet spots. Once you get home, store them in the fridge in a loose bag or a glass container with the lid cracked to prevent moisture buildup and fast spoilage.   

Dyeing with mushrooms 

Though they’re certainly delicious, there’s much more you can do with mushrooms than eat them, including making pigments for fabric dyes, ink, and all varieties of paint. In fact, the vastness of the fungus kingdom covers every color of the rainbow, says Julie Beeler, a naturalist, teacher, and artist. “Mushrooms contain a variety of different chemical compounds that create colors ranging from red to yellow to blue and colors in between,” says Beeler. “These pigments can be found throughout the mushroom, but for certain species like Cortinarius semisanguineus [the surprise webcap], the color is concentrated in the caps. For Hydnellum caeruleum [the blue and orange hydnellum], the color is throughout the mushroom. And for Hypomyces lactifluorum [the lobster mushroom], it is only the parasitized outer layer.”

Beeler created the website Mushroom Color Atlas as an educational resource for people who want to use mushrooms to make hues. She walks beginners through the process of extracting dyes from 28 fungal varieties that are common in the wild, and she intends to add another 13 in the coming months. Those few dozen specimens can produce more than 800 colors, she notes.

While the practice is growing in popularity, it has centuries of history. Fungi, particularly lichens—complex organisms created by a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and an alga—have been used in cultural practices across North America, North Africa, Asia, and Europe. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, all pigments were processed naturally. Since then, pretty much every dyed item we encounter has been colored using synthetic dyes. “Mushrooms allow you to get back to natural practices that are more regenerative and sustainable for the environment and the planet as a whole,” says Beeler. 

To stain fabrics, she explains, you need a pot, similar to one for making tea. Beeler suggests cutting the fungi into smaller pieces and steeping them for about an hour in hot, but not boiling, water. (A temperature of about 160 degrees Fahrenheit will prevent the compounds from degrading.) When the color of the water has changed, you can dip natural fibers in to dye them. 

The look of your final product will depend on the mushrooms you use and your material. Wool tends to absorb more vibrant, bolder shades from the organisms than other textiles. Cotton, the world’s most widely used fiber, is surprisingly more complicated because it’s cellulose-based and requires a lengthier mordanting process to fix the chemicals to the threads. “You’ll need to be a lot more advanced to get really great colors on cotton,” says Beeler, “but you can get some incredible colors with wool.” 

If you’re not getting the look you want, you can alter the pH of the dye bath depending on what the mushroom you’re working with responds to best. Certain species prefer more acidic environments, so you can add vinegar to produce an orange tinge. Or for greater alkalinity, add a sprinkle of sodium carbonate to get a vibrant blue or green. The hues might fade over time with repeated washing or exposure to sunlight, unless you use a mordant like alum to bind them to the fibers.

The best part is that you can find your main materials almost anywhere: while moving dead limbs around your yard, during a walk through the park, or perched upon a strip of grass in a parking lot after a good rain. Some will look like the mushrooms you get from the grocery store, with the expected gills underneath; others will have more novel structures. Boletes, such as the spring king, have a spongy cap and produce a range of beautiful earth tones. Some false gill mushrooms deliver a spectrum of blues, greens, and yellows, depending on which you grab. Tooth fungi have fanglike spines and often produce blues or greens. Another excellent clue to the dyeing potential of a mushroom is whether it’s colorful inside and out. The lobster mushroom, for example, makes a variety of pinks and reds, true to its name. 

“I just love that as I’m walking in different environments, every step I’m taking, I’m thinking about that fungal underground in the soil and the mycelium, this web of connections creating a rainbow beneath my feet,” Beeler says. 

Building on mushrooms

Creating structures with mycelium—the network of fungal filaments that allows mushrooms to grow aboveground—is an exercise in simulating the layers in natural ecosystems. The practice is a chance to think of the presence of trash as an opportunity to create something new. “In the living world, there isn’t really such a thing as waste,” says Merlin Sheldrake, the author of Entangled Life, a bestselling book on mycology. Scraps are always used to create something else, like a scavenger breaking down a carcass. “Are there ways that we can learn from those cyclical processes to behave more like other living organisms do?” Sheldrake continues. “Or will we continue just to produce stuff and then put it in landfills?” 

Building with fungi is a relatively new field that’s in a state of expansion. Mycelium can be used to create packaging, clothing, and even buildings; researchers are working on making the materials more robust and streamlining production. BioHAB, an architectural project in Namibia, for instance, is salvaging the remains of cleared encroacher bush, an indigenous species that drastically reduces usable land and resources, to create a substrate for farming mushrooms. The waste from cultivating the fungi is then compacted into eco-friendly bricks. The end product is strong, flexible, insulative, and soundproof, and can be used to reinforce structures in local villages, BioHAB’s website states. 

Similarly, NASA is looking into mycelium-based construction materials for astronaut dwellings on the moon and Mars. These composites are light and transportable, protect better against radiation, could self-replicate in their new environments for an endless resource, and, at the end of their life spans, can be turned into fertilizer.

Working with mushroom structures encourages builders to think about the whole cycle of production. “If you’re growing composite material using mycelium and hemp, for example, then you think about where the hemp is coming from,” Sheldrake explains. “Then you start thinking about the fact that you are harnessing a waste stream from another industry to produce the feedstock to grow the fungus.” 

Accessing mycotecture at the consumer level is a bit more complicated, but more opportunities are sprouting up. If you want to wear your mushrooms, luxury fashion houses like Stella McCartney, Balenciaga, and Hermès are experimenting with mycelium leather. In 2021 Hermès introduced a bag in partnership with MycoWorks, a company that develops leatherlike materials in a variety of colors from reishi. 

Pivoting to mushrooms could, in part, help buffer the effect industrialization has on the planet. Manufacturing is a major cause of environmental degradation, pollution, carbon emissions, and waste. Mushroom-sourced components can offer a break from petrochemicals and plastics if they can be produced sustainably enough and brought to scale. But the field, which is still in its infancy, has a ways to go before it can make an earnest contribution to the use of sustainable goods. 

“These fungal materials are exciting when you step back and look at how all these different industries go together and the possibilities that exist between them,” says Sheldrake. “Unless we rethink the way that we build and produce, then we are going to be in even bigger trouble than we already are.” 

Growing your own mushrooms

When Tavis Lynch started raising mushrooms in the early 1990s, he approached it as a hobby before expanding into more complicated projects, eventually becoming a professional mycologist and commercial cultivator. He currently grows 20 indoor and outdoor mushroom varieties employing genetic pairing—creating new strains of mushrooms by mating spores from two existing varieties. 

Lynch has made a fruitful career out of something people can do at home. A DIY venture doesn’t have to be complicated. “There are a lot of different ways to grow mushrooms,” Lynch explains. “We can grow them on wheat or oat straw. We can grow them on natural logs. We can grow them on compost. We can even grow them on blended substrates that we create, typically an enriched sawdust or coffee grounds.” 

Most varieties of mushrooms bred at home are used for cooking or medicine. But the first thing to assess is the resources available where you live. Coffee grounds, compost, or sawdust will be the best substrates for anyone living in a major metropolitan area where green space is limited or tightly regulated. For those budding hobbyists, going the kitchen counter route with a tabletop kit, rearing specimens in a basement, or even hanging them somewhere in your shower will be your best bet. (Choosing a shaded, humid spot is the most important element.)

Once you’ve figured out the logistics, including what type of mushroom you want to farm, Lynch suggests finding a spawn supplier—a step that, like growing the fungi, won’t be too hard. “They’re popping up left and right every day because the trend toward home cultivation of mushrooms is massive right now,” he says. Companies such as Tavis’s Mushrooms, North Spore, Field & Forest Products, Earth Angel Mushrooms, and Mushroom Queens offer online ordering and quick shipping across the US.

I ordered a pink oyster mushroom kit online from Forest Origins. Starting the growth process was as simple as Lynch had said it would be: All I had to do was cut into the substrate bag, disturb some of the top layer with a fork, dampen it, and place it on my counter to get indirect sunlight. Then, twice a day, I came by and spritzed it with a water bottle. I started seeing fruiting bodies develop about a week into this daily ritual. Sadly, I accidentally sprayed it with bleach while cleaning and had to order another kit. 

Bleaching aside, checking on my baby mushrooms felt as good as tending to my other plants. Ensuring they had enough sun and moisture gave me a few minutes of grounding amid chaotic days. It was a reminder that nearly everything provided to us by this Earth is beautiful and useful.

“Getting out, working with your hands, having a distraction from your digital devices and from the noise of others and the city—that’s the real medicine,” says Lynch. “I’m looking out my window right now at my mushroom farm, and I wish I was out there working on it.” 

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A lot can go wrong when you’re hiking or backpacking far from civilization: you could get turned around, become dehydrated, suffer from hypothermia, or get stuck in inclement weather. Whether you’re prepared for those problems depends largely on what’s in your backpack, so you’d better be carrying the essentials. 

We’re talking about the Ten Essentials, a list first published by outdoor organization The Mountaineers in 1974. This group of items was designed to answer two important questions:

But for longer hikes in the backcountry, don’t skip any of these important items—even if you’re familiar with the territory or consider yourself experienced. “Stuff happens,” McClure says. “It just does. Eventually it’s gonna happen to you or someone you’re with.” And it’s always best to be prepared. To make packing easy, keep the first seven items in your favorite hiking pack all the time and toss in the last three (plus a map) before you head out the door.

1. Navigational tools

“Today we carry five tools for navigation in the backcountry,” McClure says. “These key tools are a physical paper map, a compass, an altimeter app on your phone or a watch with an altimeter, a cell phone GPS app, downloaded digital maps, and a way to contact first responders with a device such as a Garmin inReach.” Just don’t forget extra batteries or a power bank, especially if you’ll be using your phone to help navigate.

2. Headlamp

Few hikers who have gotten lost in the woods or fell behind schedule were probably anticipating being in the woods or mountains after dark. So no matter the length of the hike, pack a headlamp or flashlight. Sure, we all have cell phones with built-in lights these days, but those tend to drain the battery quickly, making your phone unavailable for emergency calls or digital maps. Just make sure your headlamp batteries are charged and bring spares, just in case.

[Related: How to remove cactus needles, even without tweezers]

5. Knife (and other necessary tools)

A knife or multi tool and repair patches are essential. Wrap a few layers of duct tape around your trekking pole or water bottle and carry a length of paracord and an adhesive patch or two on longer hikes in case your jacket or backpack springs a leak.

6. Fire

If the worst should happen, having a way to light a fire for warmth—or an emergency signal—can help you make it through an unexpected night outdoors. But items like matches and tinder are only helpful if you’re in an area with downed wood. Trails above the treeline or in the snow can be lacking in that department. So think more along the lines of whether you have the ability to heat water, McClure explains, suggesting items like a backpacking stove and lightweight pot.

[Related: What happens to the food you leave outdoors]

9. Extra water

Not enough water can quickly cause dehydration, especially in warmer months, and this can lead to a whole slew of additional health problems—it can even kill you. So pack at least half a liter per hour that you plan to be hiking and bring more than you think you need, especially on longer excursions.

10. Extra clothes

No matter the season or the length of the hike, always pack an extra layer. Even in the summer, temperatures can drop or wet weather can roll in, so bring an extra item of clothing or two. Depending on the forecast and where you’re hiking, that might be a cozy fleece, a rain jacket, or a lightweight puffer. Check the forecast before you go and bring that extra layer just in case.

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Microwave ovens are so commonplace that it’s hard to imagine you’re missing out on tremendous cooking potential every time you pop in some leftovers, set it, and forget it. But you are. They don’t do anything that, say, a conventional oven or a stovetop can’t do, though they can do it faster, more efficiently, and with way less hassle.

But first, how do microwave ovens work?

Microwaves are not perfect, though. As you might have noticed the last time you tried to nuke a hefty plate of rice, they don’t always warm up your dinner evenly, leaving some bits cold or undercooked, and others extremely hot. This is because—just like all waves—microwaves have peaks and valleys where their power fluctuates.  

[Related: The best indoor herb gardens of 2023]

Take four or five sprigs, put them between two sheets of paper towels, and heat them in the microwave for 30-second increments on high power until they’re dried. When they’re done, take them out, let them cool, and use your fingers to break the leaves. Store them in an airtight container. 

The quick spurt of heat has an effect similar to blanching, which preserves the color and aromatics of your herbs. The water in the leaves evaporates rapidly due to the effect of the microwaves, rendering perfectly dried flakes you can use year-round. 

The heat softens the juice-holding membranes, so you’ll get more juice when you squeeze them than you would from room-temperature fruit. 

• Pro tip: Before using the microwave, roll your unpeeled citrus on the counter while applying light pressure. This will loosen the membranes even more. 

It won’t save you a lot of time though. As I mentioned before, microwaves are not perfect and sometimes leave cold spots in your meals, or fail to penetrate all the way to the center of denser foods. And this is in a normal setup. Having an irregular one might make it harder for your microwave oven to cook your dishes evenly, so stop the heating, give your food a stir, and pop it in for an extra minute or two to make sure no one gets stuck with a cold meal. 

The principle is simple: the heat produces steam when it contacts the water molecules inside the garlic, separating the skin from the flesh.  

Something similar happens with tomatoes. First, wash your tomatoes and cut an X shape with the tip of a sharp knife on the side of the fruit opposite the stem. Microwave them for 25 to 30 seconds and then cool them. Finish by pulling on the corners of the X to remove the skin. 

I’m not here to tell you you can’t eat an entire cake by yourself, but whenever you want just one slice, you can make a mug cake. These sweet treats are single-serving cakes you can prepare without preheating the oven or dusting off your baking equipment—a microwave will suffice. You can choose chocolate, or vanilla, experiment with other flavors and even try a cookie in a mug. The best part is that you won’t have to scrub baking sheets or cake molds afterward. 

If you’re into more savory stuff, maybe you’d like to cook a potato—that is, without boiling any water or having to wash a pot afterward. First, poke your spud with a fork to allow for even cooking and prevent any explosions. Then, put your potato (one, two, more—you do you) in a microwave-safe glass or ceramic bowl with some olive oil, salt, the dried rosemary you made before, or whatever other aromatics you’d like to add. Heat up your tater for five minutes on high power, and when that’s done, carefully take it out of the microwave (it’ll be hot!) and turn it over. If you’re only cooking a single potato, nuke it for an extra three minutes, but if you’re eating more than one, do a second five-minute round, and enjoy. The microwave is truly the best appliance for solo living.

This serves two purposes, and the first one is pretty obvious if you’ve ever stuck your head inside the microwave and looked up (Have you? It’s gross). The paper towel will prevent your food from splattering all over the inside of your microwave, so it stays clean for longer. A damp paper towel will also help retain some of the moisture in your food so it cooks more evenly, and doesn’t dry out and become chewy. 

Slice a lemon in half and squirt some of the juice into a microwave-safe bowl with about an inch of water. Toss the lemon halves into the bowl (make sure the water doesn’t cover them) and microwave them for three minutes on high power, or until the water comes to a boil.

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The smell of lemon is the smell of cleanliness. There’s nothing like the scent of a freshly cleaned bathroom (lemon), a stack of spotless dishes (lemon), or a floor so pristine that five-second rules easily become three-minute rules (yes, again, lemon).

It’s marketing, for sure, but there’s also a reason for it. Lemons and other citrus fruits contain citric acid, and this natural compound also happens to be a great cleaning agent. You can make your home smell like a citrusy paradise with lemon-scented cleaning products, but you can also get cheap citric acid for cleaning assistance in some of the most problematic corners of your home.

You won’t actually get that signature aroma—citric acid in its pure, crystalline form is odorless. But who cares about that when you can actually see through your glass shower door for the first time in years?

(Also, please don’t eat off the floor—no matter how clean it looks or how lemony it smells.)

Why citric acid is good for cleaning

Citric acid has become a staple in household products mainly because of its disinfectant and chelation properties, which make it really effective against hard water.

“Chelation means that the molecule binds very strongly to metal ions. Since hard-water scales and rust have metal components, binding the metals breaks up the materials and makes them dissolve in the water,” explains Patrick Holland, professor of chemistry at Yale University.

[Related: A bare minimum guide to spring cleaning]

Just as in chelation therapy—which doctors use to eliminate heavy metals from the bloodstream in patients suffering from heavy metal poisoning—citric acid binds to calcium and lime, which are abundant in hard water. This allows other cleaning agents and surfactants to work better, and if you use the white crystals in higher concentrations, you can actually eliminate solid mineral deposits in your appliances.

Dishwasher manufacturer General Electric recommends crystallized citric acid for cleaning the interior of dishwashers—also known as sour salts. Put 3 to 4 tablespoons of the compound in the detergent cup, close it, and run a normal cycle without any dishes. After that, GE suggests following up with another cycle (this time with regular dishwasher detergent).

How to use citric acid to clean an electric kettle

If you’re a fan of tea, you probably have an electric kettle, and it probably has some mineral buildup inside. Using filtered water instead of tap helps prevent this (or at least slow the process down), but if you have a hard water source in your area, it’s highly likely metals and minerals coming straight from your faucet have created a white crust. This residue can even crack and end up in your tea. Gross.

But because of its chelating faculties, using citric acid to clean your electric kettle is both fast and simple. Mix a tablespoon of citric acid with a liter (4 ⅓ cups) of water, and stir until dissolved. Boil the mixture and then let it sit for 15 minutes. After that, dispose of the solution, rinse the inside of your electric kettle, and stand in awe of your brand-new-looking appliance.

Rinsing after cleaning is important, but you shouldn’t worry too much about a smidge of leftover residue. Citric acid is widely used in the food industry, and it’s not only present in all kinds of fruit (including strawberries and pineapple), but also in jams as a preservative, and even in fizzy candy.

“A little bit [of citric acid] ingested wouldn’t hurt anyone,” says Holland.

How to use citric acid to clean showerheads and faucet aerators

I don’t think I’m exaggerating when I say that low water pressure can be counted as one of the horsemen of the apocalypse. Having just a single thread of water to clean yourself (or that pan with burnt lasagna ends stuck on the sides) cannot be defined as anything but a nightmare.

Low water pressure depends on a lot of factors—some of which are out of your control—but one you can definitely do something about is clogged showerheads and faucet aerators (the same thing, but in your kitchen sink).

The cleaning method is similar to that of the electric kettle. Just unscrew your showerhead or aerator (or both, if you want to multitask), and submerge it in a solution of 1 tablespoon of citric acid per 4 ½ cups of boiling water. Showerheads are hollow and will float, most likely with the holes facing up—which clearly defeats the purpose of this strategy. Use anything heavy and heat-resistant to keep it submerged. I used a jar of olives, but I’m sure you can come up with something better.

How to use citric acid to clean an espresso machine

You probably spent a lot of money on that fancy-looking appliance you use to make your delicious coffee, but what’s the point when your cup of morning glory has a slight taste of rust and metal? If you want to find the likely culprit of this travesty, look no further than the minerals in the water you’re using.

I’m sure you’re on to it by now, so let’s cut to the chase and get rid of that mineral residue. To descale your espresso machine, just fill the water reservoir with a solution of 2 tablespoons of citric acid for every quart of water, stir it to fully dissolve the crystals, and run the machine normally.

[Related: Are your cleaning products really green? Here’s how to tell.]

How to use citric acid to clean shower doors

I don’t think I need to keep singing the praises of citric acid, but on top of everything else, citric acid will also help you get rid of hard water stains on shower doors. That gunk is basically just mineral buildup.

You’ll need a little help from high temperatures, though. Using a citric acid to water ratio of 2 1/2 tablespoons per 1 cup of hot water, pour the solution on the door. Let it act for 15 minutes before rinsing. You might need to scrub a little with a sponge or rag, but the buildup should be loose and the stains should come off easily.

This story has been updated. It was originally published on November 5, 2020.

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When the wintry mix makes going outside unpleasant, the couch and a good book are tempting. But think: if you start your spring cleaning now, you’ll be able to enjoy the first warm days of the season outside smelling flowers instead of inside scrubbing floors.

Untidy spaces in particular seem to have a harmful effect on your mood and health. As a 2017 article in Psychology Today noted, clutter can interrupt “both your ability to move and your ability to think.”

[Related: A complete guide to digital spring cleaning]

Plus, it turns out people who regularly tidy up are getting a fair amount of light physical activity. That’s good if one of your New Year’s resolutions was to decrease the number on the scale, but cleaning also offers the benefit of space in your home to do things like rolling out the yoga mat or firing up an exercise video, doubling down on the physical benefits of a tidier space.

And if you start your spring cleaning now, it’ll give you an edge when warmer weather rolls around. Nearly 80 percent of households in the US ring in the new season with spring cleaning, and tackling what you can now means there will be less to do when you’d rather be outside. Some tasks, though, like washing windows, should probably still wait until you’re in significantly above-freezing temperatures.

Next, consider what you’ve accumulated—gifts, trinkets, and toys—over the past year and pare down items that serve similar purposes. For example, if you got a new phone or computer for Christmas, donate the old one. Be sure to include any cords and chargers, and consider including a pre-paid minutes card if you can afford it.

That said, don’t declare this the weekend you finally scour all the stain off every tile in your kitchen. Break a big task into more digestible chunks and tackle those grout stains a row or two at a time. Taking smaller steps will also let you know what “clean” and “tidy” mean to you—your place doesn’t have to look like an apartment straight out of #cleantok to be functional for you.

Give yourself a flexible deadline and bend the scope of the task to accommodate. Instead of having that shelf in order and the books to be donated out the door by the first day of spring, set a steady, regular pace that you can pick up and put down as you need. Even if the big stuff isn’t complete by the time the robins come back, it’ll still be much closer to being done than it was before.

Finally, consider tackling multiple projects on a rotating basis. A 2015 survey conducted by Microsoft in Canada showed that our attention spans have dropped substantially in the past decades—from 12 seconds in 2000 to 8 seconds in 2013. But switching things up keeps us more productive for longer. For work that’s repetitive or doesn’t need your full attention, multitasking and doing it in “small bites” can also help.

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Some people like scrubbing floors, sweeping out a garage, or dusting a forgotten bookcase. But for many of us, spring cleaning is the most dreaded chore of the year.

Love it or hate it, spring cleaning carries with it a sense of a clean slate, which can help us feel like we are setting ourselves up for success. Researchers call this “the fresh start effect,” where we take specific events such as New Year’s or the start of a new school year, as an opportunity to try something again. 

This explains why a whopping 78 percent of Americans choose to do a yearly spring cleaning, although 8 percent avoid it at all costs. That’s not surprising either—this series of chores can be daunting, and some of it might not even be necessary.

So whether you are going to do a full house deep clean, or just tidy up, keep an eye on germy areas—the rest is just extra credit.

You might also find untreated stains and odors on your mattress. Work on those by spraying white vinegar and scrubbing them with a soft bristle brush. When the surface is dry, finish up by sprinkling baking soda all over your mattress and letting it sit for a few hours before vacuuming everything up.

Another dreaded spring cleaning job is not just taking out the trash, but cleaning out the trash cans themselves. But before you reach for whatever old chemicals and cleaners you have in the back of your cabinet, make sure you aren’t cleaning with harmful ingredients that could be dangerous to inhale, like bleach or ammonia. Duyen Nguyen, an allergist at Memorial Hermann, a nonprofit health system based in Houston, recommends wearing an N95 mask while cleaning with harsh chemicals, as they will keep your lungs free of fumes and debris, especially if you have allergies or asthma. (You probably still have one of those on hand at home.)

The Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America says that 8 out of 10 people come in contact with dust mites, while 6 of 10 are exposed to cat and dog dander, and even cockroaches can cause allergic reactions, especially for people who live in the south and urban areas. Spring cleaning is the perfect time to identify what’s exacerbating your allergies, and minimize those triggers by cleaning out the build-up at home.

“Without spring cleaning, both patient allergies and allergic-induced asthma symptoms will be difficult to control, despite being on medications,” says Nguyen. 

She says one of the most common mistakes people make while spring cleaning is turning on a fan to circulate air, which instead riles up dust mites that have been settling into bedding, carpets, and other fabrics throughout the winter.  

To work toward cleaner air, he recommends thoroughly dusting surfaces such as tabletops, shelves, cabinets, windowsills, and blinds, using a damp cloth. This, Nguyen explains, will trap allergens in the fabric and prevent them from flying into the air and into your airways. If you don’t have outdoor allergies, flinging open the windows does help with air circulation, too.

While the Environmental Protection Agency is split on whether to use an indoor air cleaner, they note that these devices and HVAC filters can “possibly” improve cardiovascular and respiratory health.

But instead of doing it all at once, Stapf is adamant that we should trade “spring cleaning” for more consistent decluttering throughout the year. “Many people put off the everyday, mundane chores, leading items to pile up. This causes people to feel as though they need to do one large spring cleaning overhaul,” she says. People tend to avoid wiping up their stoves after cooking and regularly discarding old food, clothes, and clutter, so she recommends getting into the habit of cleaning up right after you finish something to avoid larger messes.

“Immediately after a meal, place your dish in the dishwasher. When you leave one room to go to another, take a few items that are out of place and put them back before leaving. Getting into the habit of continually picking up after yourself will help you avoid the need for a massive cleanup,” Stapf says.

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About three years ago, I stopped telling people I was on Jeopardy!. This is primarily because it is a very strange way to start a conversation, but also because it does become repetitive answering the same questions (they don’t tell you the categories beforehand, and Alex Trebek was very nice). Recently, the show invited me back to compete in the upcoming High School Reunion Tournament, and as I prepared I found myself cataloging all the techniques I’ve developed over my years of trivia. I’d like to pass on my expertise to everyone who wants to get better.

I’ll be honest, though: some trivia does simply come down to luck—it is a lot easier to name the states bordering Illinois if you live in Chicago, for instance. But there are definitely a few tricks to the trade that will almost immediately help you get better at trivia. So the next time you’re at your local bar playing with some friends or following along with Jeopardy! at home, consider these tips before you finalize your answer.

Every time I hear a trivia question, I break it down into a bulleted list of facts in my head. Take this question I saw last year in the trivia league LearnedLeague: “Kathleen Hanna, co-founder and lead singer of the punk band Bikini Kill, allegedly (and inspirationally) once wrote with a Sharpie on a hotel room wall, ‘Kurt smells like’ what?”

Here’s how I broke it down:

• The answer is a word or phrase that completes the sentence “Kurt smells like…”
• The answer somehow inspired one of Kathleen Hanna’s friends.
• Bikini Kill played punk music, so the answer probably has something to do with rock music.
• Kathleen Hanna knew a guy named Kurt.

You likely only know one musical Kurt (Cobain), and he did play rock music, so it almost certainly has something to do with him. Cobain was the lead singer of Nirvana, so you can start thinking through Nirvana songs. From there, you’re likely to come up with Smells Like Teen Spirit. “Teen Spirit” nicely completes the phrase and is indeed the correct answer.

If you’re asked a question about a movie from the 1940s, for instance, you can immediately begin honing in on your answer based solely on what’s relevant enough for someone to know (think Citizen Kane or It’s a Wonderful Life, not some B movie only five people have watched). While I was in my last year of high school, I appeared on Jeopardy’s Teen Tournament, where I finished as a semifinalist and won $10,000.

[Related: Why do we love game shows like ‘Jeopardy!‘ so much?]

Here’s my breakdown of the final question of that Jeopardy! semifinal (I got the question wrong, in case you were wondering). The category was “the American Revolutionary era”: “She was disowned by the Quakers after marrying an Episcopalian upholsterer in 1773 and later took over his business.”

• The question says she, so we’re looking for a woman.
• This person was a Quaker, but was later disowned.
• This person married an upholsterer.
• This person took over her husband’s business.

There were plenty of women around during the Revolutionary era, but only a few of them are remotely famous. The answer is going to be someone you’ve heard of. It won’t be someone pulled from obscurity. So, I started running through famous revolutionary women—Martha Washington, Abigail Adams, and Dolley Madison were the names I came up with.

Unfortunately, I couldn’t go much further than that. I didn’t know any of the presidents’ religions, and the last clue just didn’t fit at all. In fact, the answer was not a president’s wife, but seamstress and alleged flag designer Betsy Ross. I kicked myself when the answer was revealed, going “Of course! Very famous, very ‘knowable.’”

Don’t be afraid to guess

Sometimes, you’ll have to make educated guesses because it’s impossible to know literally everything. At the bar where my friends and I play trivia every Tuesday, an incorrect answer doesn’t have a penalty, so if we don’t know, we always take a guess. On Jeopardy!, which does penalize incorrect answers, it’s wiser to play a little more cautiously when you’re unsure. But in general, it’s good practice to guess.

Take this other question from my other Jeopardy! Teen Tournament appearance: “The word ‘trombone’ comes from the Italian for this related instrument.”

• The answer is the name of an instrument.
• That instrument is related to the trombone.
• Its name is the origin of the word trombone.

At that point in my life, the last time I’d played a musical instrument was during piano lessons in fifth grade. I did not know the answer to this question, and I did not know the origin of the word trombone. However, I did know that trumpet and tuba are both related instruments that start with “T.” Of the two, “trumpet” shares more letters. My gut instinct said trumpet, so I buzzed in, said “trumpet,” and got the question right.

Watch for wordplay

Trivia writers (Jeopardy! especially) love to throw in little wordplay hints to lead you to the answer. Pay attention to them, because they’re relatively common when the main fact is pretty obscure. Wordplay hints generally won’t get you to 100 percent certainty, but they’ll often get you from knowing nothing to an educated guess.

Here’s another example from LearnedLeague: “The American photographer William Wegman is well-known for his warmly whimsical and witty works which primarily feature dogs of what breed?”

• We’re looking for a dog breed.
• This breed is featured prominently in photographs by William Wegman.

I’d never heard of William Wegman or his photographs, but paying attention to the exact wording of the question led me to tack on this bullet point:

• That’s weird, why do so many of the words in this question start with “W”?

To a trivia writer’s mind, this is probably a hint that the name of the dog breed you’re looking for starts with “W.” So, start going through dog breeds until you happen across the correct answer, “Weimaraner”, and take a shot in the dark. This will never be perfect (you could have thought of the Whippet, for instance), but it is quite useful.

There is one more strategy I have for learning things, although it’s a little more artificial than simply consuming media and remembering. There is a subset of hints that either make excellent trivia facts or uniquely identify an individual, but get overused when writing questions. Jeopardy! enthusiasts refer to these clues as “Pavlovs” and quizbowl players call them “stock” clues.

[Related: How and when to use a ‘memory palace’]

For example, the Russian poet Alexander Pushkin, who wrote Eugene Onegin and Boris Gudonov, fought a bunch of people in duels before dying, so he’s often clued as a “duelist” or as a “Russian duelist.” If I hear that turn of phrase in a question, the answer will almost always be Pushkin.

Other Pavlovs include “Iowan painter” for Grant Wood of American Gothic fame, “Artist in Tahiti” for French painter Paul Gaugin, and “King of Swing” for clarinetist Benny Goodman. 

Pavlovs make nice shortcuts, especially when you’re talking about literature and the arts. You can’t read every book, but if you can remember that Nigerian author Chinua Achebe once gave a speech about racism in Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, you might not need to.

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So you’ve been stung by a jellyfish. The good news: there’s no need to get your friend to pee on you. The bad news: all the other treatments you’ve heard of will probably only make it worse.

A jellyfish sting is like a thousand tiny spears simultaneously injecting you with poison—literally. Their tentacles have millions of minuscule lances embedded inside nematocysts, which launch the little stingers out and into your skin upon contact. They latch on, like those little burrs that get in your dog’s fur, and let loose a stream of venom. If the jellyfish that gets you happens to be, say, a box jellyfish, you could be dead in minutes.

If you’re a character from a hit ’90s television series, you’re probably thinking, “Yeah, but you can just pee on it, right? Everyone knows the ammonia or whatever counteracts the sting.” But that’s where you’re wrong. Know what else doesn’t work? Almost everything Google suggests. Two researchers from the University of Hawaii at Mānoa reviewed those purported solutions and found that of all the home remedies, only one was really a good idea: vinegar. They published their findings in the journal Toxins.

How to treat jellyfish stings

Many of the sites that come up when you search “jellyfish sting treatment” have conflicting information. Some suggest rinsing with seawater, removing any tentacles, then dousing the area in vinegar or hot water. Others reverse the order of the steps. The advice gets worse the older the page is, too—most of the top results have corrected outdated information, but some have not. When you or a friend is suffering on the beach, you need proven methods from actual scientific studies.

Vinegar

Your best bet in a pinch is to douse your skin—and the tentacles on it—in vinegar. Find the most highly-concentrated stuff you can and pour it on. Vinegar inactivates the jelly’s nematocysts so they can’t fire, which means they won’t be able to hurt you any worse. Once you treat the injury with vinegar, you’ll still have to remove the stingers with tweezers. Or rather, you’ll have to get a friend to don protective gear and do it for you.

[Related: Are jellyfish going to take over the ocean?]

When you’ve gotten rid of the jelly using vinegar and tweezers, apply heat to the injury. It might seem like you want ice to cool off the burning wound, but heat actually reduces the venom’s activity—so you’ll end up with less damage in the long run. Ice packs actually doubled the size of the damaged area for one of the types of jellyfish studied.

Sting No More

In a shocking turn of events, by far the most effective jellyfish sting treatment was—drumroll please—Sting No More, a product designed to treat jellyfish stings. The spray contains vinegar to inhibit the nematocysts, plus urea to help dissolve the sticky substances that help tentacles adhere. It was the only treatment that allowed the tentacles to be washed away rather than plucked out.

Alcohol of any kind will also make the nematocysts fire more, according to research, so don’t go pouring your beach beer on a throbbing jellyfish sting. Seawater is more innocuous, but trying to rinse away the tentacles just means there’s more opportunity for the stingers to latch on to other parts of your body. Shaving cream and baking soda, which purportedly help block the stingers, do almost nothing in reality.

Why peeing on a jellyfish sting doesn’t help

If you know your chemistry, you might be wondering why pee is poo-poo’ed as a remedy when urea—one of its components—shows up in the most effective jellyfish sting treatment. But here’s the deal: while urea does indeed help unstick tentacles from stung skin, human urine is generally too diluted to accomplish this. And while your well-meaning buddy’s pee almost certainly won’t have enough urea to help you out, it may contain enough salt to trigger nematocysts to fire more venom into you.

The post A jellyfish sting treatment that actually works appeared first on Popular Science.

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With egg prices rising and concerns over food security increasing, some folks have taken a step toward self-sufficiency and opted to raise chickens in their backyards. Whether for meat or solely for eggs, having your own coop may be a great solution if you’ve been struggling to find ingredients for your breakfast omelet.

But tending a flock requires work, time, space, and above all, shouldering the responsibility of caring for the health and well-being of animals. It’s no joke. That’s why it’s important to know exactly what you’re getting yourself into before you welcome chickens into your life. 

“People see the adorable coops on social media and the cute fluffy chickens and it’s something they automatically want. But chicken keeping is work,” says Nikki Husted, author of the upcoming book Chicken Keeping Pure and Simple: A Fun, Friendly Guide to Backyard Chicken Keeping. 

[Related: Why you should build a swing for your chickens]

Husted, who’s also known to her almost 250,000 TikTok followers as @purelychickens, explains that there’s a learning curve to raising birds where you’ll be constantly troubleshooting and adjusting your caretaking techniques. The process can quickly become frustrating, which may be why some folks trying it for the first time at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic ended up giving up their chickens or even abandoning them. 

This is why it’s important to do thorough research before you set off on this new adventure. But don’t be discouraged: they’re very much worth it and not only for the food.   

“[Chickens] provide so much more than just eggs,” says Husted. “Not only do they give us laughs and companionship, but they have helped [me and my husband] teach our children about kindness and respect for animals.”  

“Chicken upkeep doesn’t take much time at all,” says Lisa Steele, author of The Fresh Eggs Daily Cookbook and fifth-generation chicken keeper. 

Once you’ve perfected your routine, it should only take about 10 minutes each morning and night to let the chickens in and out, feed them, and check for eggs. That’s it. This should be pretty easy if you’re working from home, but as long as you provide your birds with enough food and water, as well as a safe coop and run, there’s no need to have anyone supervising the flock during the day, she says. 

If you need to go somewhere for work, Husted recommends using large gravity feeders and five-gallon waterers. That way you won’t have to worry about your chickens starving if you run late at night. 

But you will have to worry about temperature in the colder months. “Eggs tend to freeze in the winter if you don’t collect them in a timely manner,” she explains. If that happens, the egg can crack, making it vulnerable to germs, and it’s as good as gone. 

For the coop, you’ll need to consider 3 to 4 square feet per chicken. This is especially important in the colder months when they’ll spend most of their time indoors, or if there’s not a large area for the run. And don’t forget about furniture. Yes, chicken furniture. Steele recommends a minimum of 8 inches of roosting bar per hen (they perch on it to sleep), and one nesting box for every 3 to 4 hens to lay their eggs. Keeping your flock entertained and stimulated is also a good idea, as bored birds can start pecking their roommates. For this, consider making your own chicken swing out of branches and rope.

All the sources we consulted for this story recommend getting a coop that can house more chicks than you actually plan on buying. If your flock outgrows its shelter or you end up purchasing more chickens, you’ll have to upgrade your setup, and that’s not only annoying, but can also get expensive. 

As for chicks, Steele says they can cost between $4 and $15 each depending on the breed. But high demand for the hobby has slightly increased prices in the past two years and made some varieties harder to find. 

The main other expense you’ll have is chicken feed. Amy Barkley, livestock and beginning farm specialist with Cornell University Cooperative Extension, explains that hens will eat about 1/3 pound of feed per day, which equates to a yearly cost of about $50 per bird. This calculation is based on 50-pound bags of feed, which Barkley says you should be able to find for around $20. But prices will vary depending on where you are and what kind of food you get—you’ll find varieties like GMO-free or organic can be slightly more expensive than generic. Steele says you can also reduce your feed bill by sharing some kitchen and garden scraps with the flock or allowing them to forage for grass, weeds, and bugs in the yard.

“The cost to keep chickens is relatively low, but the reality is that it’s still probably cheaper to purchase eggs from the store,” says Barkley. If you find that’s the case for you, you may want to reconsider your flock-keeping endeavors—and that is absolutely fine. 

“​​Breeds in this category are large-sized chickens that will lay well and are easy to manage,” she explains. These include Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island and New Hampshire Reds, Orpingtons, Ameraucanas, and Leghorns. 

Then there’s the question of how to start: should you get chicks or fully grown hens? There are pros and cons to both approaches. With chicks, there are fewer things in the world cuter than a baby yellow fluff, they’re inexpensive, and raising them from a younger age will make it easier for them to get used to you. Familiarity will prevent you from sharing your property with some very aggressive tenants. 

On the downside, you’ll have to wait between 5 and 6 months before your chicks are old enough to lay eggs, and they need more equipment and care than older birds, including heat lamps, brooders, and chick dust. And then there’s the wild card factor: telling a chick’s sex is tricky, so even if you buy females, there’s still a 10 percent chance that you’ll end up with a rooster instead of a hen, says Barkley. That can easily become a problem, not only because they can be more aggressive than hens, but because some urban areas don’t allow keeping roosters because of noise concerns.

If you want to make sure your flock comprises egg-laying hens only, you can get ready-to-lay birds. But it’ll cost you—they can go for $20 to $50 each, more than three times as much as a chick from the most expensive breeds. Also, adult hens are more set in their ways, so you may get more than one less-than-loving peck every time you enter the coop.

If you have a pupper, getting them to peacefully coexist with your flock is not impossible, but it’ll highly depend on their breed, as some are genetically wired to hunt fowl. Knowing your pooch’s limits and slowly introducing them to your birds in a supervised environment will be key to helping them get along. Just keep in mind that it may never happen. In that case, providing a secure shelter and run for your flock is essential to protecting them.

Other than a proper roof, The Happy Chicken Coop, a website dedicated to providing information about backyard chicken keeping, suggests using wire mesh with openings no larger than a ½ inch for the bottom 3 feet of the fence around your run. 

“If you have a building that has a dirt floor, line the perimeter with cinder blocks or bury hardware cloth 12 inches below the ground to keep baddies from digging under the walls,” Barkley says.

Some counties and municipalities have people apply for permits, fill out applications, or pay a fee to set up a chicken coop on their property. They may also have specific requirements as to how big it can be and where it can be located. Sometimes they’ll even send inspectors to make sure everything’s in order. 

[Related: We don’t know what a happy chicken looks like, and that’s a big problem]

To save yourself money and trouble, check the requirements for keeping chickens in your area. You’ll usually find that information in your state’s or city’s health code or by asking the wildlife or parks department. Barkley also recommends reaching out to your local university’s extension office. In New York City, for example, the city’s regulations allow people to have hens, not roosters, in all five boroughs without a permit, but the coop and run have to be at least 25 feet away from the nearest building. 

If you live in a communal building or have close neighbors, informing them about your plans ahead of time can also help preserve the peace. Steele says that even if you only keep hens, they’ll still make noise, especially after laying, so you’ll need to be prepared if that becomes a problem. But the promise of fresh eggs delivered to their door may be enough to convince your neighbors. It might be a small price to pay to keep everyone happy. Especially your chickens.

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It’s Super Bowl LVII time, and this year the Philadelphia Eagles are squaring off against the Kansas City Chiefs for the championship title. While the Chiefs are returning for their third final in four years, bets are slightly favored towards the Eagles as they’ve kept a strong and consistent offensive line all season, led by quarterback Jalen Hurts. But the Chiefs could defy the odds if quarterback Patrick Mahomes fully recovers from an ankle sprain he sustained more than a week ago against the Cincinnati Bengals. 

[Related: We calculated how much sweat will come out of the Super Bowl]

Ultimately, the game could come down to every single throw. Mahomes has already proven he can hit his mark in most circumstances: His football spirals are the “closest we’ll see to breaking the law of physics,” says Chad Orzel, an associate professor of physics and astronomy at Union College in New York. “He manages to make some amazing passes from bizarre positions that wouldn’t look like they would produce anything good.” Hurts has also been leveled up his game this season through “meteoric improvements” in his throws.

Throwing the perfect football spiral might seem like something reserved for Super Bowl quarterbacks. But with some practice and science know-how, you too can chuck up the perfect spiral.

Why do football players throw spirals?

Unlike baseball or basketball, the American football relies on a spiral rotation because of its prolate spheroid shape. If you make the ball spin fast enough, it will stay in the same axis it’s pointing towards and hit the intended target straight-on, Orzel says. This follows the conservation of angular momentum: an object preserves its rotational speed if no external force is acting on it. 

Think of a spinning top. When you twist the toy and release, it will rotate in the same direction that you wound it up in, and will continue to stay upright in that angle until another external force (like your hand) causes it to stop. “It’s the same idea with football,” explains Orzel. “If you get the ball spinning rapidly around its axis, it’s a little more likely to hold its orientation and fly through [the air] in an aerodynamic shape.” 

[Related: Hitting a baseball is the hardest skill to pull off in sports. Here’s why.]

In a game where you have seconds to pass before you get tackled or intercepted, the biggest priority is to flick the ball with its nose pointed toward you. This confers less air resistance, meaning the ball can travel farther in a straight path (as long as it doesn’t meet outside forces like strong winds), explains John Eric Goff, a professor of physics at the University of Lynchburg in Virginia and author of Gold Medal Physics: The Science of Sports. A wobbly pass will result in more air drag and take longer to reach its destination, he adds. If you have to duck a defender and then pass the ball off quickly, you will get erratic air drag, which also hurts the accuracy of the throw.

How to throw a football spiral

To get a great spiral, you need to master angular momentum, which involves a few key physical factors. First, a person’s grip on the laces of the ball acts as torque—a measure of force applied to an object to rotate on its axis. In other words, the friction from the fingers gives the ball traction to spin. 

Second, you need to perfectly balance the frictional force on the ball and the forward force needed to give the ball velocity. This requires strong core muscles to rotate the body all the way through the shoulder and increase throwing power. “Tom Brady used to practice drills where he would rotate his torso quickly to help develop fast-twitching muscles in his core,” says Goff. 

Third, the hand must also be on the back of the ball to give it forward velocity, but not too far back to prevent the necessary torque for the spin. “A typical NFL spiral rotates at around 600 rotations per minute, which is the low end of a washing machine’s rotational rate and about 30 percent greater rotation rate than that of a helicopter’s rotor blades,” adds Goff. “Pass speeds are typically in the range 45 to 60 mph—the same range for cars entering and driving on highways.” For maximum force, pull the ball back to your ear just above your armpit, then release it with your elbow fully extended. Your wrist should point down at the end of the pass.

Knowing the physics behind a football spiral is only half of the battle. Both physicists emphasize the importance of practice. Practice can be as simple as watching videos of pro footballers, studying their technique using computer simulations, and playing a game of catch at the park with friends. 

Achieving a perfect spiral is challenging but doable. Even your favorite NFL quarterback might have started with a clumsy first toss. But with practice, they’ve become the ideal throwing machines we cheer for every year. 

The post Throwing the perfect football spiral is a feat in science appeared first on Popular Science.

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Plants create energy out of sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water, and our houseplants really only need us to actively give them one of those things. Still, we are sometimes too busy attending to our human needs and wants to give them some fresh H2O. We go on vacation, become busy, get sick, and forget or postpone our watering duties.

Fortunately, plants are fairly forgiving about their watering schedule. The worst mistake you can make while hydrating a plant is to leave it soaking in a pot without drainage, which can cause root rot and death within two weeks. So really, don’t worry if you’re a little lax with your watering—most plants can withstand the occasional drought. Especially if you take steps to make each pour as effective and long-lasting as possible. 

Fortunately, there are many ways to increase the humidity around a plant. You can enclose the plant in glass or clear plastic, which is the only way I can keep my carnivorous plants alive. You can put a plate of water or humidifier near the plant (do not place the plant itself in the water, as this could cause root rot).

Keep your home cool while you’re away

Plants generally like to be warm. However, if you’re leaving for a long journey, letting your plants be a little colder than they usually would be and moving them out of the sun might be a good idea. That might help stretch your last watering a little bit further, according to Wagner. 

Use ice or a glass bulb to water gradually

Many grocery-store orchids come with care instructions that advise giving them a piece of ice instead of liquid water. However, this guidance is controversial. Wagner says you should make sure there’s some soil between the ice and your plant’s roots, but that you’ll probably be fine with this prolonged watering strategy. Hillary Jufer, horticultural program manager at Cornell Cooperative Extension, notes, “Where ice touches plant material, it can lead to tissue damage and rot.”

You can also use a glass bulb, or even a glass soft drink bottle, to give your plants the same type of gradual water supply. Just fill the bulb or bottle with water and leave it in the soil. The water will flow out slowly over time. 

Cover the soil

Wagner started putting packaging paper around the bases of her plants to keep her cats from scratching the stems. Since then, she’s found this feline defense strategy also helps the plants’ soil stay moist for longer. “It’s almost like a mulch layer,” she says.

Embrace the chore

Many care-taking delays can’t be helped. But if you can take the time, plant maintenance—or “horticultural therapy”—is good for your mental health. Tending to my plants helped me recover from a tough layoff and adjust to the solitude of freelancing in 2018, for example. If you are careful, your houseplants will offer oxygen and companionship when you are able to get back to them.

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Of all the annoying things that can happen on a lazy Sunday afternoon watching TV, running out of AA batteries for your remote might easily be in the top 10. Luckily, there’s a hack for that: you can use AAA batteries instead. 

Just wad up some aluminum foil and place it between the battery and the spring so that it fits snugly. It’s a perfect solution if your gamepad dies or you cannot be bothered to go to the store to get some AAs. 

This trick has been around for a while and it’s currently making the rounds on TikTok again. But you can’t trust everything you see on your For You page, and some of those viral lifehacks are duds or even just straight-out dangerous. We wanted to know if this is one of them, so we turned to the experts.

Alkaline batteries from AAAA size up to D cells have the same operating voltage, Shi explains. This means non-rechargeable batteries like these all offer 1.5 volts of power, so there’s no electrical reason you can’t use them interchangeably—they just won’t physically fit right into the battery slot in your device. That’s where the tinfoil comes in: it allows the battery to fit snugly in place while still conducting electricity.

“Aluminum foil isn’t the best conductor,” says Shi. “But for low-power devices such as those powered by AA batteries, it works just fine.”

If you don’t mind spending a little money, you can also opt for buying a dedicated product for the job. You can buy battery adapters that turn AAA batteries into AAs, or even D cells. Shi says these are better than aluminum foil as they facilitate more stable physical contact.

Maybe buying one of these adapters means you’ll never have to purchase any battery bigger than AAA for the rest of your life. Technically, you could, but that’s far from a perfect solution.

But it’s not just a matter of size. Shi says that as a rule of thumb, cheap D-cell batteries, for example, have less power than a good AA, and the heavier the battery is, the more energy it will pack.

So consider tin foil as the perfect way to avoid a trip to the store on a lazy day. But don’t be surprised if a week later you find you’ve drained all the AAAs you had at home. It’ll buy you some time, but it’s not the end-all solution.  

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This article was originally featured on Field and Stream.

Are you familiar with the fur-bearing trout? This mythical creature has been part of Scottish and Icelandic folklore since the 17^th century. In 1929, there was even a fur-bearing trout catch reported in the Arkansas River, where it was theorized that a large amount of hair tonic accidentally dumped into the water caused the trout to grow a thick coat of polar bear-like fur. These fish are, of course, pure fiction, though I’d love to own one of the ancient taxidermied fur trout that pop up in bars and museums from time to time. It would look great next to my jackalope. But while a fur-bearing fish isn’t like to smack your spinner or gulp your live shiner, catching something with fur can happen.

According to this (vague) story on Whiskyriff.com, a couple of friends ice fishing in an undisclosed location were rolling video on what they assumed was a nice fish on a tip-up line, only to be shocked when a muskrat pops through the hole. The fuzzy little fellow quickly spits out the shiner and dives back in. This kind of mammalian ice catch isn’t that uncommon, though. In February 2022, Massachusetts angler Keith Poisant made headlines when he hooked a huge otter through the ice. This kind of thing happens more than people think and not just on the hardwater.

The Usual Suspects

I know someone who was fly fishing for brown trout at night when he snagged an ornery beaver that started tail slapping all around his drift boat. I’m betting his reel’s drag hasn’t spun at higher RPMs since. But there are certain locations and scenarios where having a critter actually take shot at your bait or lure is a real possibility. The craziest first-hand account I ever heard was from a friend trolling Barnegat Bay in New Jersey for striped bass. When his rod doubled over, he was convinced he had a record-class fish on the line only to have that glory dashed when a harbor seal surfaced with his shad swimbait dangling from its lip. The seal looked at my buddy, and then dove back under and took 100 yards of line off the reel in 3 seconds before it broke off.

That’s a very rare occurrence, but if you talk to southern anglers that fish were gators swim, you’ll hear plenty of stories about these reptiles—usually the smaller ones—grabbing cut baits and even attacking topwater lures. Though I’ve never experienced that in the States, I have witnessed the aggression of juvenile caimans in South America, which seemed particularly attracted to Spook-style walking topwaters that produced a loud clack.

Birds are probably the most common non-aquatic animal that anglers hook, and this can happen in many ways. Coastal birds like sea gulls and terns routinely grab lures and live baits fished near the surface, especially during the frenzy of a striped bass, bluefish, or Spanish mackerel blitz. Cormorants will dive down 5 feet or more to feed, and more than a few times I’ve had these pesky and often problematic birds wind up on my hook. Of course, if you want to pin down the most common critter bycatch, one that thousands of anglers deal with every year, it’s turtles. Whether you’re fishing worms for bluegills or shad chunks for catfish, turtles will find it. It’s almost unavoidable, but what you can avoid is making an annoying situation worse whether you hook a little painted turtle or a mad otter.

What to Do When Unexpected Animals Bite

Regardless of the scenario, the safety of the animal should take top priority when deciding how to handle an inadvertent hooking. Naturally, it’s a case-by-case thing. Small turtles, as an example, are relatively harmless. If the hook is visible and the turtle will cooperate, try to remove it. Turtles, however, often retract their heads into their shells when scared, in which case, prodding and prying to remove a hook can cause more damage than simply clipping it off as close as possible and letting the animal work the hook out or have it rust out.

Snapping turtles, which plague me in several spots where I like to target catfish and bowfins, are another matter. Given their ability to reach around with their long necks and bite you, I never attempt to free the hook from a snapping turtle. I have a pocketknife ready to cut the leader as close as possible. Beyond their ability to harm you, keep in mind that snappers—even smaller ones—are incredibly strong. Most of the time, once they get close enough to see you, they’ll go on the defensive by burying in the mud or backing away quickly. Trying to use your rod to force a turtle—or any larger animal, for that matter—onto land is a fast way to destroy your gear while putting unnecessary stress on the animal. During that trip to South America, I watched a guide hell bent on getting his lure back grab a baby caiman that had hit a topwater. The caiman shook and sent a hook into his hand. As the reptile rolled in the boat, it violently tore the hook out of the guide’s finger and snapped a rod in the process.

Birds can often be dealt with more easily, but again, the risk to your safety varies by bird. Whenever birds of prey like hawks or eagles are involved, it’s best to notify wildlife authorities for instruction whenever possible, as many of them are protected. I’ve released many hooked and tangled sea gulls, though, by grabbing them gently behind the head and placing a rag over their eyes, which calms them down. If you are ever unlucky enough to hook something furry and it’s experiencing no further trauma beyond a sore lip, however, your best bet is to cut the line as close as possible, but don’t try to fight a seal or otter or beaver right up to the boat. Most of the time when these creatures are hooked, they break the line for you. On the other hand, if you ever hook a fur-bearing trout, play it gently and reach out to me with the photos first before contacting the local news.

The post What to do when your fishing lure hooks a bird, otter—or gator appeared first on Popular Science.

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If you’re ready to start planning your first multi-day hiking trip—or your first long one in a new destination—the process can seem daunting. After all, there’s so much to consider. Where will you hike? What sort of terrain can you expect? What gear will you need? What will you eat? Just take it one step at a time and you’ll be blazing a new trail before you know it.

If you fail to plan, you plan to fail

“Plan ahead and prepare” is the first principle of Leave No Trace for a reason: if you neglect to do so, your trip is practically guaranteed to be a rough ride. Imagine arriving at a park trailhead just to discover you have to have a permit you can only apply for six months in advance. Or getting a day into a hike only to realize how demanding the terrain is and that you’re not physically fit enough. Or that the weather changed and you didn’t pack a rain jacket. All of these scenarios, and more, could ruin an otherwise enjoyable trip.

Fortunately, a little research, planning, and preparation are often all you need to avoid many uncomfortable backcountry situations, explains experienced backpacker and guide Kirstie Mullikin from Explorer Chick, an adventure travel company that offers women-specific hiking trips around the world.

[Related: Hike farther and faster with these training tips]

Start by checking park or regional websites or calling ranger stations to see if you need permits or passes, and when you need to obtain them, Mullikin says. While you’re at it, find out if any hiking areas are closed due to dangers like avalanches or rock slides, what wildlife you should be prepared to encounter, and what you’ll need to bring to go to the bathroom.

Next, use weather trends and forecasts to inform your packing, including what layers you might need, whether you’ll require safety gear like microspikes on snowy passes, and if you should prepare for rain.

Depending on the trail and the area you’d like to explore, you may need to start the planning process months in advance. Grand Teton National Park, for example, requires hikers to apply for backpacking permits six months before their trip. But state parks and national forests may require no permit at all, or you may be able to pick one up the day you start your hike.

Pick a trail

Between national and state parks, as well as public land like national forests, the options are practically endless when it comes to deciding where you’ll hike. But if you’re new to trip planning, stick with a route that’s close to home, Mullikin suggests.

A hike within a few hours’ drive of your bed and shower will not only make the trip seem less formidable, but much easier to cut short if you realize you went in underprepared. You’ll also likely be more comfortable in familiar territory, especially if you’re inexperienced.

To find great spots nearby, ask around at local gear shops, search online, or use apps like AllTrails to get ideas and details. But choose a route carefully and take into consideration your personal physical fitness. Look at the length of the trail, elevation gain, altitude, and the time you have to complete the trek to decide if you have the skills and ability to successfully tackle the terrain.

Get fit

Speaking of fitness, you’ll need to prepare your body for the rigors of the trail. Depending on your current level of athleticism and the difficulty of the route, you may want to start training a few weeks or months ahead of time.

Start by simply hiking any accessible trails near you, preferably where there’s some solid elevation gain, maybe 1,000 feet over 2 miles or so, Mullikin recommends. If that’s not an option, stairs are the next best thing, she says. So hit the bleachers or make the StairMaster at your local gym your new best friend.

As your fitness progresses, start adding weight to a backpack until you are carrying however much you expect to be burdened with on your hike. For most new backpackers, that’s usually around 30 pounds, Mullikin says. “That way, you don’t get to the first day of the hike, put your pack on, and say, ‘Oh my goodness, what have I done?’”

Pack smart

As your departure date approaches, start thinking about gear. Your research regarding weather conditions, terrain, and destination will inform much of your packing list, like whether you’ll need a four-season tent, what layers are required, and whether you’ll need bear spray. Mullikin says she always starts with the 10 essentials: shelter (which includes a tent or hammock, sleeping bag, and sleeping pad when backpacking), clothing, food, water, navigational tools, fire starter, a first aid kit, a repair kit with a knife, illumination in the form of a headlamp, and sun protection like a hat and sunscreen.

After you gather the necessities, make sure it’s all in good working order. If you rent or buy new gear, know how to use it. Pitch your tent in the backyard and practice using your stove. If you borrow gear or are using items you already own, test them before you leave home and repair or replace any gear that has holes or needs to be washed or waterproofed.

Finally, turn your attention to clothing, Mullikin says. Bring enough to keep you comfortable, but don’t overpack. Clothing, she explains, is an area where most people go overboard. She usually brings one set of clothing for day use and one to sleep in and doesn’t pack much more unless rain or snow is expected and she may need to change out of soggy clothing. Use the weather forecast to inform your clothing selection and always bring a rain jacket, just in case.

Eat right and hydrate

Lastly, plan your meals and make sure you replenish what you use during the day, Mullikin instructs. For most people, depending on their current calorie intake, that’s around 3,000 calories a day for a multi-day hiking trip—more if it’s cold outside or your route is especially aggressive in terms of elevation. So check calorie content as you make or purchase backpacking meals, but also consider other nutrients like protein, fat, and vitamins, she explains.

[Related: Tips for picking the best hiking trail]

Pack snacks, too, like dried fruit and vegetables, protein bars, and treats—Mullikin’s favorite is peanut M&M’s—to munch on between meals and when sitting around the campfire. Many hikers tend to overpack food and snacks, she says, but it’s better to have too much than too little. Until you gain enough experience to know what too much looks like, err on the side of abundance.

The same goes for water. Bring more than you think you need and research whether there will be places to fill up along the way—like spigots at developed campgrounds or natural sources you will need to purify—or if you’ll need to carry all of your water for the duration of the trip.

Once you’ve researched, prepared your body, packed, and are ready to hit the trail, do so with confidence and enjoy your time in the great outdoors.

The post What to know before you go on your first multi-day hike appeared first on Popular Science.

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Woodworking is a fun, fulfilling hobby for a lot of people, but it can also be a dangerous one. Anytime you’re working with blades spinning at thousands of revolutions per minute, there’s a risk of serious injury. I’ve had my own workshop-related emergency room visit: three stitches after getting hit by a piece of wood kicked out of my miter saw.

According to the most recent available data, more than 26,000 people went to US hospitals for table saw-related injuries in 2017, the Consumer Product Safety Commission says. And that’s not counting injuries treated at home or caused by other tools. The solution to safer woodworking combines protective equipment like push blocks, safety features built into the tools themselves, and the mindset you have when performing your cuts. 

Seriously: what you’re thinking about in the shop can be just as important as wearing safety glasses and ear protection. A common piece of advice from experienced woodworkers is to visualize your cut before making it. This can be hard to do, however, particularly for newer woodworkers. Without experience, it can be difficult to know what to visualize and plan for. After all, how can you visualize the unexpected?

While the specifics vary from tool to tool, there are a few general principles to keep in mind while working that will help you deal with emergency situations as they come up—without losing a finger.

Picture (and even practice) what a successful cut looks like

Before turning on a tool, plan out what a perfect, safe cut looks like. One important thing to keep in mind is that there are tool and technique choices for every cut you want to make, says Jon Goplerud, shop captain at the Massachusetts makerspace Lowell Makes. “Everything you do in woodworking, you can do in several different ways,” he says. “Decide what the safest choice is for this particular cut.”  So are you better off trying to make that bevel on a router table or on your table saw? Should you resaw that thick board into two thinner boards on your table saw or your band saw? This decision comes down to considering the tools you have available, what each one is best at, and, importantly, your skill and comfort level with a given tool.  

Once you’ve selected the right tool, make a plan for exactly how the ideal cut will go. If you’re routing or otherwise moving the tool along the wood, make a plan for how to secure the board to your workbench, and make sure that clamps aren’t in the way of the tool’s path. Decide how you’re going to clear the finished piece from the blade, and what will happen with any offcuts. If you’re cutting more than one piece, know before you get halfway through the cut which hand will remove the finished board and which hand will grab the new one.

[Related: The surprising woodworking tools you already have around the house]

The goal of all this visualization is to avoid thinking or making decisions when you’re halfway through a cut. You want to already know what the next step is, so there’s no hesitation or uncertainty. Deciding what to do next is a distraction from the critical task of not touching the spinning blade, and distractions are one of the fastest ways to get injured. 

Anytime I’m doing a new kind of cut, I also practice my visualization with the saw turned off. The first time I jointed a board with a level on the table saw, for example, I ran the level and board over the table saw several times just to get a sense for how it felt to move two pieces at the same time. I do the same anytime I use a new sled or jig. Practice reduces the risk of surprises. 

Know where the danger zones are

“Every machine has certain specific things that can go wrong,” says Goplerud. “Knowing those things and keeping conscious of that will vastly reduce the risk of what you’re doing.” This starts with understanding each machine you’re working with, he adds. If you’re brand-new to a machine, review the manual, read books, watch some videos, and, if possible, get someone more experienced to walk you through its safe operation.

The most obvious danger with any power tool is touching its moving parts. I rarely let my hands get closer than about 4 inches from a whirling saw blade, for example. If I have to get closer, I use a push stick, push block, or even a scrap of wood to perform that task instead. And keep your focus on the danger. “The key to safe operation of any power tool is to keep your eyes on the cutter,” says Bron Zeage, director of the Secret Underground Laboratory Recovery and Salvage, a furniture and light repair and restoration company in Louisiana. 

Another common cause of injury is kickback. Anytime a blade is spinning, it can catch the wood and hurl it at dangerous speeds. Table saws, planers, jointers, routers, circular saws, and miter saws can all kick back. All woodworkers need to understand how to minimize the risk of kickback, how to keep the wood from flying if there is kickback, and, as a last resort, where to stand to reduce your chances of getting hit by flying wood if it does happen.  

On a table saw, for instance, kickback occurs most often when the board gets pinched between the blade and the fence, twists slightly, and is thrown toward the user. This is why you never want to stand directly behind the board you’re cutting. If you’re off to the side, you’re less likely to get hit. More important, Golerud adds, is to make sure you’re using properly milled boards. Boards that are twisted or warped are much more likely to bind on the blade.  

Also always use a push block that keeps downward pressure on the wood. That way, if kickback does happen, the push block will catch it and keep it from becoming a projectile. Push blocks serve the same purpose on a router table as well. On a miter saw, where the board doesn’t move, the hold-down clamps perform this function.  

One of my favorite features on my table saw, the Dewalt jobsite table saw, is the fact that I can turn it off with my thigh, leaving both hands free to keep the wood from getting out of control. As soon as I see or hear something wrong, I can slide forward an inch, bump the off switch, and get out of danger. Not all table saws or tools can be turned off with a leg, though. Always know which hand can safely let go of what you’re doing and turn off the tool. When using my palm router, for example, I always hold it so my left hand is the one that turns it off. I simply trust my right hand more to control the tool by itself. That way, I never have to think about how to cut the power when the router starts skipping off of the wood.

Pay attention to balance and footwork

One of my major fears is losing my balance and falling onto the blade. As a result, I think a great deal about how I’m standing and where my weight distribution is. I always try to stand so that if I do fall down unexpectedly, I won’t fall forward. With few exceptions, I stand in a staggered stance, with my left foot forward and my knees bent. When pushing wood through a tool, I never put my weight on my hands. If I am doing a cut that requires me to reach—which I try very hard to avoid in my practice runs—I typically move around the tool to the left or right, rather than leaning over it.  

Create a process that becomes muscle memory

For every tool, you want to develop a standard workflow. The more consistency you can build into how you use each tool, the more that process becomes automatic and instinctual. This allows you to make fewer mistakes, because your body knows how to go through the motions.  A consistent procedure also lets me notice the small mistakes that can lead to catastrophe.  

For instance, I always keep my push stick on the right side of my table saw, on the other side of the fence. I generally use a push block, but sometimes need to add a stick to keep myself from violating my 4-inch rule with my free hand. If I put it somewhere else, something feels wrong. So I stop my machine, fix my process, and then start up again. The same is true if I bring in the new wood with the wrong hand. It feels unnatural, so I stop and examine what’s wrong with my workflow. Sometimes a certain kind of cut requires a procedural change, which is OK. But that should be a deliberate choice you make each time you break your routine. 

The one time I needed stitches from woodworking came from not following my typical process. I was cutting a scrap piece that didn’t need to be measured, so I didn’t feel like I needed to carefully align and secure it. This allowed me to move faster than normal, and I lowered the blade on my miter saw before it had fully come up to speed. At the same time, I wasn’t holding the board as securely as I typically do, because it didn’t matter exactly where the cut was. Those two mistakes caused the blade to grab the wood and throw it back at me, slicing my finger.  

Know when it’s time to call it quits

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Eggs are one of the most practical and efficient foods known to humans and an essential ingredient in cuisines around the world. But due to a series of unfortunate events (and, some say, corporate greed), eggs are now pricey and scarce. It’s enough to make you rethink your love for fluffy omelets at breakfast.

Luckily, many egg replacements are foods you might already have at home. But what you use as a stand-in will depend on what you’re making and the role eggs play in that particular concoction. 

To give you first-hand knowledge, we tried different egg replacement options with the same simple vanilla muffin recipe to see which ones work and which ones stink like a rotten egg. 

To choose the best replacement for any recipe, Lourdes Castro, a registered dietitian and director of the Food Lab at New York University, says you first need to figure out what the eggs are doing in the food you’re making. For that, a good understanding of how eggs function in food preparation comes in handy.

[Related: We made pancakes with substituted ingredients so you don’t have to]

Keep in mind that eggs are multitaskers and might be playing more than one role in the recipe. In that case, get yourself a replacement that tackles those needs, and don’t be afraid to experiment by adjusting the quantities of the other ingredients if you need to.

This is possible thanks to lecithin, which egg yolks have in abundance, Castro explains. Lecithin molecules have a hydrophilic (water-loving) and a hydrophobic (water-hating, fat-loving) side. This structure gives this nutrient the ability to simultaneously bind to oil and butter, as well as non-fatty substances like milk, making it an excellent emulsifier. If your recipe contains these two conflicting types of ingredients, your eggs are likely serving as an emulsifier.

Think of meatballs, for example. Cook a clump of ground beef and it’ll crumble. Add some eggs, and the roundness will last until the meat is fully cooked. This is because the high protein content in the eggs acts as glue, keeping everything together even in the presence of destructive heat. Anytime you’re making a quiche or adding seeds as a finishing touch to your buns, you’re using eggs as a binder.

When you whisk egg whites, you mix air into them. The stirring motion also creates an elastic web of proteins that traps air bubbles in place, allowing the gooey whites to expand. 

“[Eggs are] able to function like a leavening agent, bringing volume and height to a baked good, or whatever it is that you’re making,” says Castro. Egg yolks also have this ability, but because of their high fat content, they can only foam up to a certain degree, she adds. So any time you’re making a fluffy sponge that requires a lot of mixing and beating, eggs are there to add volume.

The glossy bronze finish is partially due to the Maillard effect: the reaction responsible for the browning of proteins that are exposed to heat. But how dark your baked goods get will depend more on the amount of pigment in the egg yolk. 

Aquafaba

• Ratio per egg: 3 tablespoons 
• Ideal for: volume and binding
• Overall performance: 🥚🥚🥚🥚🥚

Aquafaba, also known as the water that comes along with canned chickpeas, is a staple in vegan cuisine for a reason. This seemingly innocuous substance is full of protein, and its ability to foam makes it the perfect ingredient to make vegan meringue. This is also what makes it an ideal replacement when you want to add volume to your baked goods. In this experiment, it worked great. 

Depending on the chickpeas you get, the aquafaba could be a bit watery; you want it to be thick and resemble an egg-white consistency. You’ll never get a perfect goo like that, but you can get pretty close by reducing the aquafaba in a small saucepan on low heat for 10 to 15 minutes. Castro explains this is an easy way to increase the protein concentration in the liquid, as heat will eliminate the excess water. 

We reduced the aquafaba and waited for it to cool down before using it. We also made sure to mix it thoroughly with the rest of the liquid ingredients, beating it by hand for a minute or two. If you have an electric mixer, you might be able to get more volume than we did, but even two minutes of whisking by someone with very questionable upper body strength did the trick perfectly, so you don’t actually need one.   

The result was an almost perfect dupe of the control batch. The texture, volume, and flavor were spot on, with the only difference being that the aquafaba muffins were a lot paler than their eggy counterparts. Still, this was one of our favorite replacements, and we ended up with a can of chickpeas we later used to make a delicious salad with onion and feta cheese. Waste not, want not. 

Carbonated water

• Ratio per egg: ¼ cup
• Ideal for: volume
• Overall performance: 🥚🥚🥚🥚🥚

Listen, this one surprised us too. Water is certainly not the same as an egg, but when it comes to baking, the added bubbles in spicy water can provide a similar leavening effect, creating volume for your baked goods. Since water adds no flavor or fat to the batter, you may notice the taste of other ingredients more, so you may want to account for that when using this replacement. 

The finished muffins were actually very close to the control batch, and looked a lot like them. There was no noticeable change in flavor, either.

Fruit puree

• Ratio per egg: ¼ cup (65 grams) 
• Ideal for: binding
• Overall performance: 🥚🥚🥚🥚

When using fruit as an egg replacement, most sites recommend pureed apples or bananas, but you could technically use any ripened fruit as long as it’s not excessively watery (please don’t try watermelon). 

The key ingredient that fruit is adding to your batter is pectin, which a lot of recipes for jams and jellies use as a gelling agent. Simply put, it makes things thicker. In baking, pectin is a pretty good binding agent.

“Bananas are very good at delivering that,” Castro says. “The color is pretty benign, there’s not a lot of seeds, it’s pretty easy to use, and there’s not a lot of water, so it tends to be a good ingredient.”

As easy and accessible as it might be, using fruit as an egg replacement also means the stand-in’s flavor will come through in the finished product. This is not necessarily bad if you like the flavor, but it’s not the best option if you want something more neutral. 

We used mashed bananas, which we could faintly taste at the end of the experiment. But the rest of the variables were pretty stable: they looked the same as the control group, and the texture was only slightly denser.  

Baking powder and vinegar

• Ratio per egg: 1 teaspoon baking powder + 1 tablespoon vinegar 
• Ideal for: volume
• Overall performance: 🥚🥚🥚🥚

In cooking, the baking powder and vinegar combo is used to add volume. The foaming reaction between these two ingredients produces carbon dioxide, which pushes the batter outward to create height. 

Castro explains that this reaction in the oven is sort of a head start to the rise. The CO2 bubbles expand the mix while the gluten coagulates, and if all goes well, they will hold the structure long enough to fix it in place, giving your baked goods size and an airy texture. 

You will notice the difference between a muffin with eggs and one using baking powder and vinegar mainly because the latter has no fat, so the texture won’t be as soft. Luckily, our recipe had a healthy amount of butter that counteracted the absence of the egg fat, so the difference was only noticeable against the control batch. 

Full-fat, unflavored yogurt

• Ratio per egg: ¼ cup (65 grams) 
• Ideal for: binding
• Overall performance: 🥚🥚🥚

Yogurt has a lot of protein, but it’s different from egg protein because it doesn’t coagulate as easily with heat, Castro explains. This doesn’t make it a good replacement when it comes to binding things together, but in this particular case, the presence of milk changes that. 

“Milk does respond to acid, so the yogurt coagulates the milk and then removes a lot of that water,” Castro says. The result is a more concentrated form of protein that was able to keep our muffins from falling apart. 

We ended up with soft, pale-ish muffins that didn’t rise as much as the control group, so the crumbs were a bit denser overall. Yogurt also gave the muffins a faint tangy flavor, which counterbalanced the sweetness of the sugar. This could be perfect if this is your kind of thing, but if you like your muffins with a more neutral flavor, you’re better off choosing another replacement. 

Chia seeds

• Ratio per egg: 1 tablespoon seeds + 3 tablespoons water
• Ideal for: binding, structure
• Overall performance: 🥚🥚🥚

You can use chia or flax seeds to replace eggs, as both grains gel in the presence of moisture. To use it, soak the seeds in water for five minutes before adding them to the batter. You can grind them or use them as-is, the only difference being that using whole seeds will give your baked goods a specific texture you won’t get when using eggs.

Chia and flax seeds have fat and protein, so they’ll provide structure and bind ingredients together. This happens because the seeds take up more space and absorb a lot of the liquid in the batter as they gel. 

This was clear to us as the resulting muffins were indeed drier, denser, and visually lumpier than the control group. The chia seeds provided some minor added sweetness, but it was hard to get past the denseness of the muffins themselves. That said, you may be able to adjust or add other ingredients to add moisture if you’re willing to experiment. 

Castro recommends you stay away from replacements if you’re making mayonnaise or hollandaise sauce, as no other ingredients will make up for everything eggs do in those particular foods. Browning and color are two other fronts where replacements won’t do as well, she says. The protein in foods like aquafaba will give you some color and gloss, but you’ll only be able to achieve the bronzed look of a brioche with the golden pigments of an egg yolk.  

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Anyone who grew up skiing, sledding, or building snow people in the front yard is intimately familiar with the chill in your extremities that slowly builds to an aching pain as you launch more snowballs, take one more turn around the rink, or hop back on the lift for one more run.

But toughing out frigid discomfort can have enduring ramifications if cold digits or facial features deteriorate into frostbite. In fact, losing portions of fingers, toes, cheeks, or noses is a real risk in severe cold. Fortunately, there are ways to help prevent that from happening and treat this appendage-threatening cold injury if you or an adventure buddy fall victim to it.

Frostbite tends to affect these areas for one reason: circulation. Or rather, a lack thereof. See, when it’s cold outside, your body’s automatic response is to redirect blood away from extremities and to your core where insulation in the form of muscle, fat, and organs can keep it from freezing (and where blood is the most important to survival).

But more warming blood in your core and less in uninsulated digits means the tissue in those unheated areas becomes more susceptible to freezing.

And when that tissue starts to freeze, icy crystals begin to form and expand as the water in your skin, cells, and blood becomes solid, explains Darby DeHart, paramedic and ski patroller at Brighton Resort in Utah. These crystals will pierce through tissues and cells like jagged microscopic daggers.

When that discomfort turns to pain and skin turns white, waxy, and doesn’t bounce back when pressed—or fingers or toes will no longer bend—the cold injury has advanced to frostbite and you’ll need to take protective action and seek medical attention as soon as possible.

[Related: How to stay warm when sleeping in the frigid outdoors]

Ideally, though, you should take preventative measures so you don’t have to think about diagnosing and treating cold injuries in the first place.

If fabric alone isn’t enough to keep the chill at bay, pack extra heat in the form of battery-powered heated socks and gloves or hand and foot warmers. These can be lifesavers in frigid temperatures and keep susceptible body parts toasty for hours.

Frostbite treatment tips

If a cold injury has progressed to frostnip or frostbite, DeHart says to rewarm the affected area as soon as possible, preferably indoors in water heated to between 100 and 104 degrees Fahrenheit—a little higher than your body’s normal temperature. Any hotter and you could do more damage, so low and slow is the rule. Submerge the affected area until it’s no longer white and waxy. 

But DeHart is adamant that you should only rewarm a frostbitten area if you’re absolutely certain you can keep the area warm. If you’re stuck outside with no heat, perhaps while winter camping or if you were injured while skiing and are awaiting help, it’s better to simply wrap the area to protect it from further exposure, but let it stay cold, DeHart instructs.

She explains that’s because when ice crystals perforate tissue, they aren’t clean and pointy like perfectly cylindrical icicles—they are irregular and misshapen. And if they melt and refreeze, they’ll do so in a different shape, puncturing tissue in new and terrible ways. This can result in more damage as frostbite starts disrupting dermal and subcutaneous layers deeper down.

When to seek medical attention

Any time you think you’ve suffered frostbite, head to the hospital as soon as possible. Still, it’s important to know that depending on the severity of the injury, healing may be a nail-biting process as you wait to see if you’ll end up losing part of the wounded appendage, DeHart warns. That’s because once damaged tissue is rewarmed, the affected areas may swell and turn purple or black over the next few days or weeks, a sure sign that amputation is imminent.

It happens because your body notices the microscopic punctures caused by tissue freezing and attempts to heal itself via clotting. But that cuts off circulation, often completely, and can result in losing a portion of the affected area, DeHart says.

Hospitals are trying to find ways to keep vasculature to damaged tissue open using clot busters and fibrinolytic therapy to keep circulation strong and prevent clots from forming, but this treatment is still experimental.

What not to do when you have frostbite

If you do end up frostbitten, there are a few things you shouldn’t do. If blisters form, don’t break or pop them because you may cause more tissue damage. And if your skin turns white and waxy, don’t rub or massage it to warm it back up. Your tissue is fragile at that point, and you could strip off the skin, DeHart says.

Stay safe and warm

Whatever you do, if a part of your body starts to hurt because of the cold, don’t tough it out or wait to give attention where attention is due. Especially because if you experience frostbite or frostnip once, you’re more likely to suffer from it again. Listen to your body, and if the cold is becoming an issue, deal with it immediately. “Preventative medicine is always the best medicine,” DeHart says. Not only could you save your fingers or toes, but you’ll enjoy your time outside more if you’re not in pain or discomfort because of the cold.

The post How to prevent, identify, and treat frostbite appeared first on Popular Science.

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In the nightmare scenario of a nuclear bomb blast, you might picture a catastrophic fireball, a mushroom cloud rising into an alien sky overhead, and a pestilent rain of toxic fallout in the days to come. All of these are real, and all of them can kill.

But just as real, and every bit as deadly, is the air blast that comes just instants after. When a nuke goes off, it usually creates a shockwave. That front tears through the air at supersonic speed, shattering windows, demolishing buildings, and causing untold damage to human bodies—even miles from the point of impact.

[Related: How to protect yourself from nuclear radiation]

So, you’ve just seen the nuclear flash, and know that an air blast is soon to follow. You’ve only got seconds to hide. Where do you go?

To help you find the safest spot in your home, two engineers from Cyprus simulated which spaces made winds from a shockwave move more violently—and which spaces slowed them down. Their results were published on January 17 in the journal Physics of Fluids.

During the feverish nuclear paranoia of the Cold War, plenty of scientists studied what nuclear war would do to a city or the world. But most of their research focused on factors like the fireball or the radiation or simulating a nuclear winter, rather than an individual air blast. Moreover, 20th-century experts lacked the sophisticated computational capabilities that their modern counterparts can use. 

“Very little is known about what is happening when you are inside a concrete building that has not collapsed,” says Dimitris Drikakis, an engineer at the University of Nicosia and co-author of the new paper. 

[Related: A brief but terrifying history of nuclear weapons]

The advice that he and his colleague Ioannis W. Kokkinakis came up with doesn’t apply to the immediate vicinity of a nuclear blast. If you’re within a shout of ground zero, there’s no avoiding it—you’re dead. Even some distance away, the nuke will bombard you with a bright flash of thermal radiation: a torrent of light, infrared, and ultraviolet that could blind you or cause second- or third-degree burns.

But as you move farther away from ground zero, far enough that the thermal radiation might leave you with minor injuries at most, the airburst will leave most structures standing. The winds will only be equivalent to a very strong hurricane. That’s still deadly, but with preparation, you might just make it.

Drikakis and Kokkinakis constructed a one-story virtual house and simulated striking winds from two different shockwave scenarios—one well above standard air pressure, and one even stronger. Based on their simulations, here are the best—and worst—places to go during a nuclear war.

Worst: by a window

If you catch a glimpse of a nuclear flash, your first instinct might be to run to the nearest window to see what’s just happened. That would be a mistake, as you’d be in the prime place to be hit by the ensuing air blast.

If you stand right in a window facing the blast, the authors found, you might face winds over 300 miles per hour—enough to pick the average human off the ground. Depending on the exact strength of the nuke, you might then strike the wall with enough force to kill you.

Surprisingly, there are more dangerous places in the house when it comes to top wind speed (more on that later). But what really helps make a window deadly is the glass. As it shatters, you’ll be sprayed in the face by high-velocity shards.

Bad: a hallway

You might imagine that you can escape the airblast by retreating deeper into your building. But that’s not necessarily true. A window can act as a funnel for rushing air, turning a long hallway into something like a wind tunnel. Doors can do the same. 

The authors found that winds would throw an average-sized human standing in the corridor nearly as far as it would throw an average-sized human standing by the front window. Intense winds can also pick up glass shards and loose objects from the floor or furniture and send them hurtling as fast as a shot from a musket, the simulations showed.

Better: a corner

Not everywhere in the house is equally deadly. The authors found that, as the nuclear shockwave passed through a room, the highest winds tended to miss the room’s edges and corners. 

Therefore, even if you’re in an otherwise dangerous room, you can protect yourself from the worst of the impact by finding a corner and bracing yourself in. The key, again, is to avoid doors and windows.

“Wherever there are no openings, you have better chances to survive,” says Drikakis. “Essentially, run away from the openings.”

Best: a corner of an interior room

The best place to hide out is in the corner of a small room as far inside the building as possible.  For example, a closet that lacks any openings is ideal.

The “good” news is that the peak of the blast lasts just a moment. The most furious winds will pass in less than a second. If you can survive that, you’ll probably stay alive—as long as you’re not in the path of the radioactive fallout.

These tips for sheltering can be useful in high-wind disasters across the board. (The US Centers for Disease Control currently advises those who cannot evacuate before a hurricane to avoid windows and find a closet.) But the authors stress that the risk of nuclear war, while low, has certainly not disappeared. “I think we have to raise awareness to the international community … to understand that this is not just a joke,” says Drikakis. “It’s not a Hollywood movie.”

The post The best—and worst—places to shelter after a nuclear blast appeared first on Popular Science.

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Running does wonders for your body—it lowers your risk of heart disease, boosts brainpower, helps with weight loss, to name a few. But one lesser known benefit is what running does for your looks. Not only does running have you looking your physical best, but it gives you soft and beautiful skin that may fool people into thinking you’ve shaved off a few years.

[Related: Science helped me run my first marathon in 3 hours and 21 minutes]

You don’t need to zoom like a marathon runner or buy the latest athletic wear to start running. Erin Beck, a personal trainer and the director of training and experience at STRIDE Fitness based in California, says a 30-minute run at least three times a week is enough to notice results on your appearance. If that sounds too much for you, Beck recommends starting with a slower workout like a walk or brisk jog that still gets your heart pumping. “You can absolutely still get the benefits even if you’re at a lower intensity.” The key is to remain consistent and eventually challenge yourself to run longer or at a faster pace to see results sooner. Your hard work could pay off with a major glow-up. 

1. Rejuvenate dull skin

As you run, your heart rate increases compared to when you’re sitting. Exercising places stress on your muscles, and that requires having enough oxygen to keep them moving. Your cardiovascular and respiratory system responds to the increased demand in oxygen by pumping more blood through the body and at a quicker pace. Blood vessels in the muscles then enlarge to receive more of the oxygen-rich blood. Beck says that as your body pumps more blood, it’s simultaneously flushing out toxins from your bloodstream when you sweat. “It’s great for your veins, your arteries, and especially your capillaries,” says Beck.

Capillaries are small blood vessels that carry blood all over the body. Some run right underneath the skin and help with regulating body temperature by expanding or contracting when exposed to heat or cold. Dilated vessels cool the body down by increasing blood flow to the skin surface, which allows heat to escape into the environment. Beck says the increased blood circulation during a run gives the skin more opportunity to get nutrients from oxygen-rich blood. Better oxygenation of the skin helps with the regeneration of new skin cells, leaving behind supple and glowing skin.

2. Channel luscious locks

That increased blood circulation in your skin during a run also helps with the appearance and growth of your hair roots. Lindsey Bordone, a dermatologist and assistant professor at Columbia University Irving Medical Center, says running works similar to a regularly prescribed hair growth medicine called minoxidil. They both dilate blood vessels so that when blood is delivered to the tiny vessels in your scalp, there is more oxygen-rich blood making its way to feed hair follicles.

[Related: Rosemary is the secret to long and healthy hair. Here’s how to use it to grow luscious locks.]

3. Tone down acne and breakouts

Bordone says running can help lower hormones that cause acne. The secretion of “stress hormone” cortisol and testosterone increases oil production in skin glands, making you prone to clogged pores and acne breakouts. Running long distances can help with reducing cortisol levels and as you lose weight, you’ll reduce the risk for conditions that cause imbalances in testosterone levels, such as polycystic ovary syndrome.

Another obvious benefit to running: sweating. Sweating opens up clogged pores and flushes out acne-causing bacteria and dirt. Though Beck warns that if you’re not washing your face before and after workouts, the dirt and sweat lingering on your skin can dry it out and create more opportunities for acne breakouts. 

In general, your post-workout routine is also important. An indirect benefit of running is that your brain makes healthier decisions after your workout: Running increases brain flow to brain areas involved in emotions and higher thinking—and that includes choosing what you eat. “Typically, when you’re treating your body in a healthy manner, your body reacts by craving healthy things,” says Beck. “Those urges to get more sleep, drink more water, and eat less unhealthy meals will help with clearing up acne.”

4. Reduce the appearance of cellulite

Cellulite occurs when fat attaches beneath the skin. The more fat cells you have in your body, the more likely cellulite will appear. This is because as fat cells accumulate, it pushes up on the skin before being pulled back down by tough connecting cords between your outer layer of skin and the fat underneath. 

“Think about it like bubble wrap,” says Beck. “Those connectors surround air pockets in between your skin and the fat cells. When those connectors pull too tight they create that bubbly-looking effect on your skin the same way bubble wrap has a bubbly texture on top.” 

[Related: Pilates can improve your posture and balance. The killer body is just a bonus.]

Once you create a fat cell, it cannot be destroyed. But with exercise, fat cells shrink and your skin tightens. Cellulite, in turn, becomes less visible.

5. Give your face a lift

The increased blood flow and oxygen to your face help with cell turnover, nourishing healthy skin cells and regenerating new ones. The blood circulation flushes out free radicals as well—unstable molecules accidentally made during cell metabolism that damage cells and contribute to skin aging. 

A run can also decrease cortisol levels and increase the production of endorphins, which help relax the face. “Having tension in our jawlines, for example, can lead to wrinkles,” explains Beck. “But with running, you’ll have less tension in your face and that can prevent you from deepening out those wrinkles.”

However, outdoor runners should be aware of repeated exposure to UV sun radiation. Without taking precautions like using sunscreen or wearing hats, UV rays damage the DNA in skin cells and make them unable to carry out their jobs. Damage to the skin can lead to premature aging, such as wrinkling and leathery skin.

But no matter whether you enjoy running in the park or on a treadmill, both experts agree the best thing is to get your heart pumping. Even if it’s a short run around the block, over time your small efforts will make a big difference in your health. 

The post 5 surprising beauty benefits of running appeared first on Popular Science.

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A new year is always a fresh opportunity to start your fitness journey. This can mean anything, whether you’d just like to get off the couch more often, want to run a 5K, or are hoping to win a bodybuilding competition by 2024. 

You may not be sure about how to achieve your goals, but that’s ok. Having the motivation to get out there is half the battle, and we want to help you along your way. 

PopSci has a number of science-backed fitness stories to guide you in this new era. You’ll learn how to make the best of your workouts, how to get gains safely and consistently, and how to keep your body healthy along the way. 

Our guide on how to get muscle gains will walk you through that process and explain how resting is as important as going to the gym, and how protein is a crucial element your body needs to build more mass.

[Related: You should definitely rotate your workouts]

Food restrictions like veganism can seem like an added layer of difficulty when it comes to including enough protein in your diet, but getting those gains doesn’t require you to become a carnivore. If you need guidance, head on over to our vegan guide on how to get muscle gains and learn about the foods that will give you the nutrients you need to achieve your fitness goals.  

But before you repeat the same stationary stretches you might remember from PE class, give dynamic warmups a try. These exercises will not only tell your brain it’s time to move—which is especially important after sitting at a desk for a while—but will also prepare your body for physical activity by getting your blood flowing and your heart rate up.

But other than resting, there are other techniques you can use to help your muscles feel better after a heavy workout. That annoying and painful soreness you feel around 24 hours after your last gym session is a result of muscle damage, and recovery techniques can help you handle the pain and help tissue heal faster. 

From classic stretching to foam rollers, ice baths, and massages, our guide on what works when it comes to recovery can be exactly what you need when your muscles are so sore that getting off your chair comes with excruciating pain. 

Knowing your maintenance rate—the number of calories you burn simply by existing—can give you a baseline to adjust the number of calories you eat every day to keep the muscles growing and fat-burning going. 

It’s important to know that monitoring your food can be a slippery slope to unhealthy habits, so make sure to do it only for short periods of time, and to follow experts’ recommendations regarding calorie surplus and deficit. And if you don’t know what those are, don’t worry—it’s all in our guide. 

Getting a fitness tracker can help compile all the statistics you need to keep going and improving—all you need is to put it on and go do your best. And if you don’t know which wearable to get, we have some recommendations that might lead you in the right direction. 

The type of device you get will highly depend on your budget and your preferred activity, but there are a lot of options to choose from, and they can all give you that extra motivation you need to face another day of your fitness journey.  

When it comes to building muscle and improving performance, science has only found two supplements that will help. Learning how to take them and how they work for your body will help you have a better understanding of your process. Keep in mind that you may need to consult a doctor before you start supplementing your nutrition, and also remember supplements don’t do miracles. Moving, resting, and, above all, patience, will keep you on a good path to your fitness goals. 

The post It’s time for your 2023 fitness journey—here’s how to get started appeared first on Popular Science.

Articles may contain affiliate links which enable us to share in the revenue of any purchases made.

Best overall		National Academy of Sports Medicine		SEE IT	Our top choice because of their well-respected, rigorous curriculum, accreditation, and internship program that gives trainers hands-on training as well as job placement opportunities.
Best online		Fitness Mentors		SEE IT	This accredited, all-online certification program was designed specifically for trainers who want to learn and work online and includes useful online marketing training.
Best in-person		National Federation of Professional Trainers		SEE IT	This NCCA accredited program allows participants to attain certification by attending a two-day, in-person workshop.

Becoming a professional personal trainer requires the proper certification, and finding the best personal trainer certification programs means looking for in-depth education and training on technical topics such as anatomy and physiology. Not only an occupation for fitness buffs, personal trainers need to be able to motivate, sell themselves and their services, and offer clients individualized physical and technical guidance and training. 

With our increasingly sedentary lifestyles, employment and demand for personal trainers is projected to grow in the next decade. While working out at home has been a popular trend for years, people turned toward home fitness in skyrocketing numbers as home offices became the new normal due to closings and safety concerns. Home fitness equipment, fitness trackers, and at-home gym sales have soared as more people take charge of their workouts and fitness goals. Despite this shift (and maybe because of it), people need consultation from personal trainers to teach them proper techniques, avoid injury, design workout routines, and track fitness goals. The best personal trainer certifications will provide you with all the technical training you need to help meet your clients’ needs no matter where they choose to work out.

• Best overall: National Academy of Sports Medicine
• Best online: Fitness Mentors
• Best physical (in-person): National Federation of Professional Trainers
• Best athletic focus: National Strength and Conditioning Association
• Best budget: Action Personal Trainer Certification

How we chose the best personal trainer certifications

We arrived at our selections by reviewing seven top-rated personal training certification programs. Specifically, we reviewed personal training certifications from the National Academy of Sports Medicine NASM; Fitness Mentors FM; The American Council of Exercise ACE; National Strength and Conditioning Association NSCA; Action Personal Trainer Certification APTC; National Federation of Personal Trainers NFPT; and Athletics and Fitness Association of America AFAA. We compared and considered the following for each certification:

• Cost: How expensive is the personal trainer certification? Are there hidden fees or is the program all-inclusive?
• Features: What education and training tools does the program offer? How does the platform prepare you for your exam and career?
• Flexibility: How long do you have to study before your exam? Can you learn online and in person?
• Networking opportunities: Does the certification company offer opportunities to connect with peers and potential clients?
• Continuing Education: Does the company offer CE classes to maintain your certification?
• User impressions: How do actual customers rate the personal training certification?

Things to consider before pursuing a personal trainer certification

With no shortage of personal trainer programs on the market, it’s important to find a personal training certification program that not only is reputable but that works with your goals and lifestyle. Not all personal training programs are the same so you’ll want to consider the following before you decide to enroll:

• Accreditation: It’s important to choose a personal trainer certification program that is accredited. This means, the program has been reviewed by the NCCA, NBFE, or, if the program is remote, by DEAC. Knowing that your program’s curriculum is offering the most up-to-date instruction is also important if you will be working for gyms or health clubs, as most require certifications that are accredited.
• Price: How expensive is the program? Larger remote-only programs might be very affordable as compared to programs offered on-site at private studios. What is included in the program fee?
• Program reputation: How popular is the personal trainer certification program? Is the company well known and respected?
• Testing: Certifications require passing their test. How many hours will you be required to study? How many questions are on their test? Is there a retake fee if you fail and need to take the exam again? Check out the passing rate for the program you are interested in.
• CEU requirements: In order to maintain your certification, you’ll be required to take CEU classes, so how many Continuing Education Units must be taken each year?
• Income and jobs: Does the program offer assistance in finding jobs or clients? How are the average incomes of certification holders in the program compared to other programs?
• Focus: Does the personal trainer certification program focus more on one aspect of the education than another? Does that focus match your interests?

The best personal trainer certifications: Reviews & Recommendations

Best overall: National Academy of Sports Medicine

NASM

SEE IT

Why it made the cut: NASM is our choice for best overall personal trainer certification because of their well-respected, rigorous curriculum, accreditation, and internship program that gives trainers hands-on training, as well as job placement opportunities.

Specs

• Accreditation: NCCA National Commission for Certifying Agencies
• Course package options: Choose Basic Self-Study, Premium Self-Study, Guided Study, All-Inclusive or Combine with other Certifications (such as Nutrition Coach) in Bundle Packages 
• Learning platform: Online Digital Learning

Pros 

• Innovative Curriculum uses the latest scientific research
• Higher-tier packages offer a money-back job guarantee
• You’ve got 180 days to complete and pass exam
• Exam offered online or in-person

Cons 

• Certification course offered online only
• Basic program has limited features
• Expensive for top-tier access

The National Academy of Sports Medicine, or NASM, offers multiple options for online personal trainer certification, which are tiered according to price and features. The fees for certification can be paid in a lump sum or split up into an interest-free payment plan over 18 months, which makes this easier to afford. 

Depending on your needs, you can opt for a very affordable basic certification that gives you access to all learning, as well as one exam. If you are looking for added support and guarantees, you can opt for the all-inclusive package that includes retesting, job guarantee, CPR/AED Certification, a “Gymternship” program, as well as the ability to recertify for life. You’ll have to complete 2.0 CE credits—equivalent to 20 hours of training every 2 years—to keep an active certification, which ensures you will stay up to date on innovations in the field.

All tiers of this certification require online learning; there are no options to take a class in person with teachers. The exam, however, is flexible—you can opt to take it online or in person at one of their testing sites.

Best online: Fitness Mentors

Fitness Mentors

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Why it made the cut: Fitness Mentors is our top choice for online because this accredited, all-online certification program was designed specifically for trainers who want to learn and work online and includes useful online marketing training.

Specs 

• Curriculum: Exercise science, business, marketing, and sales education
• Remote learning: All courses and testing are online
• High success rate: The exam passing rate is 85% for first-time takers, one of the highest pass rates in the industry

Pros 

• Lower cost compared to other accredited certifications
• Accredited by NCCA
• Lower exam retake fee

Cons 

• No in-person learning opportunities

Fitness Mentors, or FM, is an affordable online-only program for personal trainer certification. They also offer bundle packages if you want to add on other online certifications, such as virtual nutrition coach, virtual group fitness, or virtual health coach. Compared to other leaders in the field, FM has a shorter test and a higher rate of passing than other accredited certification programs. 

While it’s common to obtain certifications online, this program offers no options for in-person or internships. This makes a good choice for fitness trainers that want to work remotely or are comfortable without any in-person resources. Included in the training are online business training and marketing to help you get started obtaining clients virtually.

Best physical (in-person): National Federation of Professional Trainers

NFPT

SEE IT

Why it made the cut: NFPT is our top choice for a program with physical participation because you can opt to do your certification (or CE credits) by attending a two-day workshop in person.

Specs

• Accreditation: NCCA
• Continuing Education credits: CE credits required for maintenance of certification are free
• Flexible: Get your certification online or by attending in-person workshops

Pros 

• Inexpensive for online-only option
• Live Remote Proctoring with virtual proctor from home for exam
• Discount for Civil Servants and health club staff

Cons

• In-person workshops are limited and not offered in every state 
• Workshops with certifications will cost more 

National Federation of Professional Trainers offers students a comprehensive certification package that includes free continuing education credits, free exam testing, interest-free financing options, as well as the opportunity to learn in person by joining two-day workshops. 

This certification program is flexible and can be done online or in person. Some people learn best with hands-on training, so this is a nice option. Half of your in-person workshop will be in a classroom setting and the other half will be hands-on, which is critical for developing personal training skills. 

In terms of cost, this program is very reasonable compared to other leading certification programs. The basic online program is one of the least expensive we reviewed; however, the in-person training plus certification will cost you significantly more. The workshops are limited in location, so travel may be required, which would add to the overall cost.

Best athletic focus: National Strength and Conditioning Association

NSCA

SEE IT